"; -ku naru (to become something)
Remember the -ku form?
You can use the -ku form of a normal adjective with the verb naru (to become), and make some very nice sentences. This form is used a lot. If you watch just about any Anime, you'll hear it at least once.
Examples
shiroi - white
shiroku natta - became white
osoi - slow
osoku natta - became slow
hayai - fast
hayaku natte iru - is becoming fast
nai - not there (opposite of aru, to exist)
naku natta - became nothing
Example Sentences
Akane wa Dracula o taoshita kedo,
Akane (subject) Dracula (who or what) killed but,
inochi ga naku natta n'da.
life (subject) not there became (is).
Akane defeated Dracula, but at the price of her own life.
ranma o taoshita ato de, genma to tatakatte ita.
ranma (who) defeated after, genma (with) was fighting.
After he defeated Ranma, he was fighting with Genma.
tabako mou naku natta nda!
cigarettes already nothing became !
We're already out of cigarettes!
kono rousoku o naku naru made,
this candle (what) nothing becomes until,
koko de matte kudasai!
here (location) wait please!
Please wait here until this candle completely burns up.
doushite konna tokoro ni kuru nante?
why this kinda place (to) come (a thing such as)
Why did you come to a place like this?
ame ga futte iru shi,
rain (subject) is falling (and)
okaasan ga okotte iru shi,
mother (subject) is being angry (and)
nanimo dekinai n dakara.
nothing can't do (*filler*) therefore.
It's raining, and mom's mad, so I can't do anything.
Rabu, 02 Maret 2011
particle ato "after" in japanese
Ato
If you ever want to say after, you will probably need to use this word. Ato is very similar to the English word after. Ato, like bakari, is used with the -ta form. You can add it to just about any "past tense" sentence.
Example 1:
Akunin o koroshita
Scoundrel (who) killed.
Killed the scoundrel
Next, we'll enhance the sentence:
Akunin o koroshita ato, hayaku nigeta.
Scoundrel (who) killed after, quickly escaped.
After (he) killed the scoundrel, he quickly escaped.
Example 2:
hikaru o taoshita
Hikaru (who) defeated.
Hikaru was defeated.
hikaru o taoshita ato, waratte ita.
Hikaru (who) defeated after, was laughing
He was laughing after (he) defeated Hikaru.
This article was used with permission from:
Japanese is Possible
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If you ever want to say after, you will probably need to use this word. Ato is very similar to the English word after. Ato, like bakari, is used with the -ta form. You can add it to just about any "past tense" sentence.
Example 1:
Akunin o koroshita
Scoundrel (who) killed.
Killed the scoundrel
Next, we'll enhance the sentence:
Akunin o koroshita ato, hayaku nigeta.
Scoundrel (who) killed after, quickly escaped.
After (he) killed the scoundrel, he quickly escaped.
Example 2:
hikaru o taoshita
Hikaru (who) defeated.
Hikaru was defeated.
hikaru o taoshita ato, waratte ita.
Hikaru (who) defeated after, was laughing
He was laughing after (he) defeated Hikaru.
This article was used with permission from:
Japanese is Possible
* Login or register to post comments
'tis the season
'Tis the Season...
Christmas, the festival celebrating the birth of Christ... While today's spelling of the holiday, if not its pronunciation, shows a clear connection with Christ, the ending "-mas" has no obvious meaning for most of us. But as late as 1605, as in, for example, "Christmasse cometh but once a yeare," it was almost transparently "Christ's mass," still close to the Old English of the 13th century, Cristes mæsse, the mass or festival of Christ.
"Mass" as part of Roman Catholic ritual, traces its linguistic roots back to the Latin messa, from missa, a past participle form of the Latin verb mittere, which meant "to send, send away, dismiss." Exactly how "send" became connected with the religious service is not perfectly clear*, but this Latin verb mittere is the source for an unusually large set of English words. Admit, emit, commit, omit, submit, transmit, etc., all have noun forms based on miss-: admission, emission, commission, omission, submission, transmission, etc., and keep close to the original sense of "sending." Slightly less obvious are words like promise, compromise, surmise, which show the same forms for nouns and verbs. From the same source we get missile, missive, mission, and missionary; and through a slightly different path, message, messenger, and even mess (hall). (The "mas" of Christmas appears in a few lesser-known holiday names as well, such as Michaelmas.)
Holiday names, going back in cultural tradition, are often obscure with regard to their original meaning. Halloween (October 31), the American (trick-or-treat) form of which seems to be gaining popularity in both Japan and Europe recently, derives originally from the old Celtic festival of Samhain eve. In ancient Britain and Ireland, into Anglo-Saxon times, New Years was November 1, and on the evening before, huge bonfires were set on hilltops to frighten away evil spirits. The souls of the dead were supposed to revisit their homes on this day, and so eventually the association was made with the ghosts, witches, goblins, black cats, fairies, and demons which make up the costumes of many of today's young trick-or-treaters and costume-party-goers.
Previously written Hallow-e'en, the name is a shortened form of All-Hallow-Even, the evening before All Hallows' or All Saints' Day, a Christian holiday celebrated at the same time. "Hallow" comes from the Old English form "haliga" for "holy" (man), "saint," and it also appeared with a Christmas-like ending: All-hallowmas, the festival of all saints.
The return of the spirits of the dead is similarly found in the Japanese holiday of O-bon, also called Bon Matsuri or Urabon (July 13-15 or August 13-15), which honors the spirits of deceased ancestors. They are believed to return to their birthplaces at this time, and so memorial stones are cleaned, community dances performed, and paper lanterns and fires are lit to welcome them and bid them farewell at the end of their visit. The word Urabon probably derives from the Sanskrit Avalambana (All Souls Day), a Buddhist ceremony based on the Avalambana-sutra, which tells the story of Maudgalyayana, a disciple of the Buddha, who secured his mother's release from hell by having monks offer food, drink, and shelter to the spirits of his ancestors.
Easter, which looks like it should be connected to "east," in fact... seems to be. This Christian holiday, with celebrates the resurrection, or rebirth, of Christ, probably takes its English name from an earlier non-Christian holiday for the dawn-goddess Eostre, which was celebrated at the vernal (spring) Equinox, around the same time as Easter. In most other European languages, the word for Easter shows its connection to the last supper, the Jewish Passover ("pesah" in Hebrew), becoming Pâques in French, Pasqua in Italian, Pascua in Spanish, and Pask in Dutch. The actual date varies from year to year, for it is generally the first Sunday after the full moon (the paschal moon) that occurs upon or next after the vernal equinox (around March 21). Many of the associated customs can be traced back to pre-Christian spring festivals: Easter eggs and the Easter bunny (rabbit) could be easily connected with new life, fertility, and the Christian resurrection.
As with Easter and Halloween, the dates of religious holidays (holy-days) are often found to coincide with those of earlier pagan festivals, and to include many of their traditions. In many cases, this was the result of an attempt on the part of religious leaders to facilitate the transition of the people to the new religion: Rather than attempt to enforce a prohibition of the popular older beliefs, they scheduled their new holidays for the same time, and incorporated many of the traditional customs.
Stephen Trussel
*a note from David Klappholz: 'At the end of the Latin mass the priest says "ite, missa est," meaning "Go, you are dismissed." I believe it's quite well accepted that this is the origin of "missa" as the name of the catholic liturgy.'
Christmas, the festival celebrating the birth of Christ... While today's spelling of the holiday, if not its pronunciation, shows a clear connection with Christ, the ending "-mas" has no obvious meaning for most of us. But as late as 1605, as in, for example, "Christmasse cometh but once a yeare," it was almost transparently "Christ's mass," still close to the Old English of the 13th century, Cristes mæsse, the mass or festival of Christ.
"Mass" as part of Roman Catholic ritual, traces its linguistic roots back to the Latin messa, from missa, a past participle form of the Latin verb mittere, which meant "to send, send away, dismiss." Exactly how "send" became connected with the religious service is not perfectly clear*, but this Latin verb mittere is the source for an unusually large set of English words. Admit, emit, commit, omit, submit, transmit, etc., all have noun forms based on miss-: admission, emission, commission, omission, submission, transmission, etc., and keep close to the original sense of "sending." Slightly less obvious are words like promise, compromise, surmise, which show the same forms for nouns and verbs. From the same source we get missile, missive, mission, and missionary; and through a slightly different path, message, messenger, and even mess (hall). (The "mas" of Christmas appears in a few lesser-known holiday names as well, such as Michaelmas.)
Holiday names, going back in cultural tradition, are often obscure with regard to their original meaning. Halloween (October 31), the American (trick-or-treat) form of which seems to be gaining popularity in both Japan and Europe recently, derives originally from the old Celtic festival of Samhain eve. In ancient Britain and Ireland, into Anglo-Saxon times, New Years was November 1, and on the evening before, huge bonfires were set on hilltops to frighten away evil spirits. The souls of the dead were supposed to revisit their homes on this day, and so eventually the association was made with the ghosts, witches, goblins, black cats, fairies, and demons which make up the costumes of many of today's young trick-or-treaters and costume-party-goers.
Previously written Hallow-e'en, the name is a shortened form of All-Hallow-Even, the evening before All Hallows' or All Saints' Day, a Christian holiday celebrated at the same time. "Hallow" comes from the Old English form "haliga" for "holy" (man), "saint," and it also appeared with a Christmas-like ending: All-hallowmas, the festival of all saints.
The return of the spirits of the dead is similarly found in the Japanese holiday of O-bon, also called Bon Matsuri or Urabon (July 13-15 or August 13-15), which honors the spirits of deceased ancestors. They are believed to return to their birthplaces at this time, and so memorial stones are cleaned, community dances performed, and paper lanterns and fires are lit to welcome them and bid them farewell at the end of their visit. The word Urabon probably derives from the Sanskrit Avalambana (All Souls Day), a Buddhist ceremony based on the Avalambana-sutra, which tells the story of Maudgalyayana, a disciple of the Buddha, who secured his mother's release from hell by having monks offer food, drink, and shelter to the spirits of his ancestors.
Easter, which looks like it should be connected to "east," in fact... seems to be. This Christian holiday, with celebrates the resurrection, or rebirth, of Christ, probably takes its English name from an earlier non-Christian holiday for the dawn-goddess Eostre, which was celebrated at the vernal (spring) Equinox, around the same time as Easter. In most other European languages, the word for Easter shows its connection to the last supper, the Jewish Passover ("pesah" in Hebrew), becoming Pâques in French, Pasqua in Italian, Pascua in Spanish, and Pask in Dutch. The actual date varies from year to year, for it is generally the first Sunday after the full moon (the paschal moon) that occurs upon or next after the vernal equinox (around March 21). Many of the associated customs can be traced back to pre-Christian spring festivals: Easter eggs and the Easter bunny (rabbit) could be easily connected with new life, fertility, and the Christian resurrection.
As with Easter and Halloween, the dates of religious holidays (holy-days) are often found to coincide with those of earlier pagan festivals, and to include many of their traditions. In many cases, this was the result of an attempt on the part of religious leaders to facilitate the transition of the people to the new religion: Rather than attempt to enforce a prohibition of the popular older beliefs, they scheduled their new holidays for the same time, and incorporated many of the traditional customs.
Stephen Trussel
*a note from David Klappholz: 'At the end of the Latin mass the priest says "ite, missa est," meaning "Go, you are dismissed." I believe it's quite well accepted that this is the origin of "missa" as the name of the catholic liturgy.'
japanese numeral counters
# character romaji set gloss
1. 雨 ame hito rain
2. アンペア anpea ichi amperes
3. 場 ba hito sections of a play
4. 倍 bai ichi multiples, times as much, duplication
5. 番 ban ichi serial numbers, theatrical performances, Noh, sumo matches, shogi (将棋)
6. 晩 ban hito nights
7. 番地 banchi ichi lot, plot numbers (in address)
8. 番目 banme ichi -ths
9. 番線 bansen ichi track numbers
10. 番手 bante ichi yarn count
11. バーツ bātsu ichi baht, Thai monetary unit
12. 弁 ben ichi flower petals
13. 尾 bi ichi fish
14. 瓶 bin hito bottles (1.8 l), vases of flowers
15. 便 bin ichi public transport runs or flights
16. 木 boku ichi lumber
17. ボルト boruto ichi volts
18. 分 bu ichi tenth part of an equally divided whole; 1/10 of 1%; former unit of length, 3.03mm (3.787mm cloth), 1/10 sun (寸), 0.119 in.; former monetary unit, 1/4 両 (りょう); unit of footwear size, 2.4mm, 1/10 mon (文)
19. 歩 bu ichi unit of sq. measure, 3.3sq m, 36 sq shaku (尺), 1 tsubo (坪), 10 gō (合), 2 jō (畳)
20. 部 bu ichi printed materials, copies, newspapers, sets of books; sections of Kanji dictionaries, scriptures
21. 分 bun ichi fraction, denominators, part
22. 文 bun ichi sentences, novels, writing
23. 秒 byō ichi seconds
24. 着 chaku ichi suits, dresses, trousers; finishing position (race, etc.)
25. 帙 chitsu ichi Japanese-style books (和書 washo)
26. 兆 chō ichi trillions
27. 張 chō ichi bows or stringed instruments; curtains, screens or nets, mosquito nets
28. 町 chō ichi former unit of length, 60 ken (間), 109.0 m; unit of sq measure, 10 tan (段), 99.17 ares
29. 挺 chō ichi long objects: guns (銃 jū), oars, guitars, palanquins, candles, items of cutlery, axes (斧 ono)
30. 提 chō ichi liquor bottles, sake bottles (tokkuri 徳利, chōshi 銚子)
31. 貼 chō ichi powdered medicine (散剤 sanzai)
32. 丁 chō ichi handled objects, carpenters' tools, scissors, pistols, saws, baskets, candles, forks; former unit of length, = 119.16 yards, 360 shaku, 109 m, 60 ken; cakes of tofu, servings (cutlets, noodles...), sheets bound Japanese style; town blocks
33. 丁目 chōme ichi ward, block
34. 打 da ichi hits (baseball?)
35. 駄 da ichi horseloads
36. 朶 da ichi long oblong chest (for clothing): nagamochi (長持); trees
37. 代 dai ichi generations, descendants, reign periods
38. 台 dai ichi vehicles; machines or mechanical devices; pair of skis; sliding ponds; 16-page units in printing, galleys
39. 題 dai ichi questions, problems
40. 弟 dai ichi children, younger brothers ?
41. 弾 dan ichi steps, measures, or stages; shots, bullets
42. 段 dan ichi steps; steps or stages; columns (of print)
43. 段落 danraku ichi paragraphs
44. 打, ダース dāsu ichi dozens
45. 立て date ichi carriage horses or boat oars; films in a multi-feature movie
46. 瓧, デかグラム dekaguramu ichi decagrams (10 grams)
47. 籵, デかメートル dekamētoru ichi decameters (10 meters)
48. 竍, デかリットル dekarittoru ichi decaliters (10 liters)
49. 瓰, デシグラム deshiguramu ichi decigrams (1/10 gram)
50. 粉, デシメートル deshimētoru ichi decimeters (1/10 meter)
51. 竕, デシリットル deshirittoru ichi deciliters (1/10 liter)
52. 度 do ichi number of times; degrees; parts of musical scale
53. 堂 dō ichi Buddhist temples
54. 撮 dori ichi number of shots (pictures) available in a roll of film
55. 弗, ドル doru ichi dollar, $
56. 柄 e ichi halberd, halbert, (なぎなた), kitchen knife, cleaver
57. 重 e hito fold, ply (of garments, cloth)
58. 枝 eda hito flowers, branches
59. 駅 eki hito 1,2 station
60. 園 en ichi kindergartens
61. 円 en ichi yen, ¥, 100 sen (銭)
62. フィート fīto ichi feet (12 inches)
63. 封 fu ichi letters (mail)
64. 筆 fude hito strokes of a brush
65. 幅 fuku ichi scrolls, paintings in scroll form
66. 服 fuku ichi doses/packets of medicine; puffs (of smoke), sips (of tea)
67. 袋 fukuro hito bags, bagfuls, sacks
68. 分 fun ichi minutes; former unit of weight, 0.375g, 1/10 monme (匁)
69. ふね fune hito container of food (as sold in a store)
70. フラン furan ichi franc, French monetary unit
71. 降 furi hito rain
72. 振 furi hito Japanese swords, halberds (naginata)
73. 房 fusa hito bunches (grapes, bananas)
74. 蓋 gai ichi lid-shaped objects such as bamboo hats (kasa 笠)
75. 学期 gakki ichi terms, semesters
76. 学年 gakunen ichi school years
77. ガロン garon ichi gallons
78. 月 gatsu ichi month names
79. ゲーム gēmu ichi games (bowling)
80. 弦 gen ichi strings (chords)
81. 元, ゲン gen ichi gen, Chinese monetary unit
82. 原子 genshi ichi number of atoms
83. 語 go ichi words, languages
84. 号 gō ichi No., number, issue; dress size
85. 合 gō ichi engagements, esp in fencing matches; lidded utensils or receptacles, incense containers (香合 kōgō; former unit of sq measure, 1/10 tsubo (坪), 10 shaku (勺), 0.330 ㎡; unit of capacity, 1/10 shō (升), 10 shaku (勺), 0.180 l; 1/10 the height of a given mountain
86. 盒 gō ichi incense containers (香合 kōgō)
87. 言 gon ichi words or letters
88. 号車 gōsha ichi train car numbers
89. 具 gu ichi sets of articles, as suits of armor, prayer beads (数珠 juzu), palanquin (駕籠 kago)
90. 瓦, グラム guramu ichi grams
91. グロス gurosu ichi gross (12 dozen), e.g. penpoints
92. 行 gyō ichi lines (of print, etc.)
93. 波 ha hito events occurring in waves
94. 葉 ha hito leaves (of a tree)
95. 鉢 hachi hito potted plants, bonsai pots
96. 敗 hai ichi defeats
97. 杯 hai ichi glassfuls, cupfuls, bowlfuls, spoonfuls, containersful, drinks; squid, octopi, cuttlefish; ships
98. 箱 hako hito boxes, boxfuls
99. 拍 haku ichi beats, number of syllables in Japanese words
100. 泊 haku ichi overnight stays
101. 版 han ichi editions
102. 犯 han ichi offenses (prior)
103. 刎 hane hito helmets (兜 kabuto)
104. 腹 hara hito tarako (鱈子) codefish roe
105. 針 hari hito seams, stitches (縫い目 nuime), meshes of a net (編み目 amime)
106. 張り hari hito bows, stringed instruments, paper lanterns, umbrellas, (curtains, objects stretched over a frame)
107. 箸 hashi hito single mouthful of food
108. 柱 hashira hito gods, mortuary tablets
109. 派 hasuri hito errand doers
110. 発 hatsu ichi shots or rounds; engines; blows
111. 瓶 hei ichi potted plants or ikebana
112. ヘクタール hekutāru ichi hectares
113. 瓸, ヘクトグラム hekutoguramu ichi hectograms (100 grams)
114. 粨, ヘクトメートル hekutomētoru ichi hectometers (100 meters)
115. 竡, ヘクトリットル hekutorittoru ichi hectoliters (100 liters)
116. 片 hen ichi fragments or flakes (irregular shaped "mai")
117. 遍 hen ichi number of times
118. 篇 hen ichi poems
119. 編 hen ichi chapters or parts; (Chinese ) poems
120. 返 hen ichi number of times
121. ヘルツ herutsu ichi hertz, hz.
122. 部屋 heya hito rooms
123. 匹 hiki ichi small animals, fish, insects (& unit of measure for rolls of cloth)
124. 疋 hiki hito counter for lengths of cloth, about 21m
125. 疋 hiki ichi animals; former monetary unit, 10 (later 25) mon (文)
126. 疋 hiki ichi unit of measure for rolls of cloth, 2 tan (反), c. 9m
127. 品 hin ichi courses of a meal; saleable things
128. 片 hira hito flower petals
129. 尋 hiro hito fathom, unit of length, c. 1.8m, 6 shaku (尺), used esp. for water depth
130. 筆 hitsu ichi documents, papers (書類 shorui); ricefields, land registrations
131. 歩 ho ichi footsteps, steps
132. 舗 ho ichi maps (literary)
133. 包 hō ichi tablets (pills), packets of (powder) medicine, tea
134. 本 hon ichi long, cylindrical objects; rounds or points of a match (karate); baseball safe hits; movies; letters
135. 百 hyaku ichi 100s
136. 俵 hyō ichi bags (straw) of rice, cereal; sackfuls
137. 票 hyō ichi votes
138. 拍子 hyōshi ichi beats, or number of syllables in Japanese words
139. 位 i ichi spirits (of the dead), ranking, place, standard (順位 jun'i)
140. 圏 īchan ichi games of mahjonng
141. 吋, インチ inchi ichi inches
142. 色 iro hito colors; kinds
143. 寺 ji ichi Buddhist temples
144. 耳 ji ichi rabbits (pairs)
145. 字 ji ichi characters, letters (kanji)
146. 時 ji ichi hours of the day, o'clock
147. 次 ji ichi numerical order or number of times
148. 時限 jigen ichi hour, period (school class)
149. 時間 jikan ichi hours
150. 軸 jiku ichi scrolls
151. 陣 jin ichi occurring in spells
152. 女 jo ichi daughters
153. 錠 jō ichi tablets, pills
154. 丈 jō ichi unit of length, 10 shaku (尺), 3.030 m
155. 乗 jō ichi vehicles (literary), numbers (powers)
156. 畳 jō ichi tatami, mats (3'x6'), roomsize
157. 帖 jō ichi quires (of paper), folding screens, karakami, volumes of Japanese books...; tatami or (straw) mats,
158. 条 jō ichi articles, sections (e.g. constitution); strip-like, slender objects, obi (帯), rivers
159. 樹 ju ichi trees
160. 什 jū ichi Chinese poems
161. 十 jū ichi 10s
162. 重 jū ichi folds, layers, plies, tiered boxes (重箱)
163. 旬 jun ichi ten-day periods; decades?
164. 巡 jun ichi rounds
165. 箇 ka ichi items, places, units of time
166. 価 ka ichi valence (Physics)
167. 日 ka hito days (2-10, 20)
168. 荷 ka ichi loads, burdens; tubs, buckets (桶 oke)
169. 課 ka ichi lessons
170. 顆, 果 ka ichi fruits, jewels, small round things, hanko (seals)
171. 菓 ka ichi fruits
172. 架 ka ichi folding screens (byōbu 屏風), framed pictures
173. 花弁 kaben ichi flower petals
174. 株 kabu hito stocks, shares; plant with roots (shrubs), trees
175. ヶ月 kagetsu ichi months
176. 籠 kago hito baskets, fruits
177. 階 kai ichi floors, stories
178. 回 kai ichi number of times, games, matches; innings
179. 葢 kai ichi hats
180. 掛 kake hito collars (襟 eri), strings (弦 gen)
181. 角形 kakkei ichi -sided figure, -agon
182. ヶ国 kakoku ichi countries
183. ヶ国語 kakokugo ichi languages
184. 角 kaku ichi angles
185. 画 kaku ichi strokes (kanji)
186. 叺 kamasu hito sugar (straw bags of)
187. 艦 kan ichi warships
188. 巻 kan ichi books of one work, volumes, reels of a film
189. 款 kan ichi articles or subsections
190. 缶, 罐 kan hito cans of nori (海苔 edible laver), tea, canned goods
191. 貫 kan ichi 1,000 monme (匁), 8.27 lb, 3.750 kg; former monetary unit, 1,000 mon (文) (Edo era: 960 mon)
192. 管 kan ichi wind instruments
193. ヶ年 kanen ichi years
194. カップ kappu ichi cups (in recipes)
195. カロリー karorī ichi calories
196. 重ね kasane hito mochi (kagami mochi) (鏡餅), tiered boxes (重箱 jūbako), layers of clothing
197. 襲 kasane ichi Japanese clothing
198. 綛, 桛 kase hito thread wound on skeins, items wound on a frame
199. 頭 kashira hito helmets, headgear worn by nobles in court dress (烏帽子 eboshi); masks (faces 面 omote)
200. ヶ所 kasho ichi places (箇所)
201. 方 kata hito persons (honorific)
202. 片食 katakia ichi meals (from Edo era when 2 meals a day were usual)
203. 塊 katamari hito lumped objects
204. 片付 katazuke hito one's tidying
205. 家族 kazoku hito 1,2 families
206. 景 kei ichi scenes, sections of a play
207. 茎 kei ichi long and narrow objects [rare], hanging lantern (灯籠 tōrō), writing brush (筆)
208. 京 kei (& kyō) ichi 10 million billion, 1000 chō (兆), 10 quadrillion, 10 to the 16th
209. 間 ken ichi unit of length, 6 shaku (尺), 1.818 m.
210. 件 ken ichi cases, matters, affairs, bills, measures
211. 剣 ken ichi Japanese swords
212. 軒 ken ichi buildings, houses
213. 鍵 ken ichi keys (of a piano)
214. 桁 keta hito 1-4 digits (number)
215. 穴 ketsu ichi holes
216. 騎 ki ichi horsemen, (mounted) horses
217. 期 ki ichi terms (school)
218. 機 ki ichi planes, aircraft; heavy machinery
219. 紀 ki ichi 12-year periods
220. 基 ki ichi machines, elevators, gravestones, stone monuments, placed things, torī, screens, dressing table
221. 斤 kin ichi catty, kin, 160 monme (匁), 0.601 kg.
222. 切 kire hito slices, cuts, pieces, bits, strips
223. キロ kiro ichi kilograms, kilometers, kiloliters
224. キロアンペヤ kiroanpeya ichi kiloamperes
225. キロボルト kiroboruto ichi kilovolts, kv, 1000 volts
226. 瓩, キログラム kiroguramu ichi kilograms, kg, (1000 grams)
227. 粁, キロメートル kiromētoru ichi kilometers, km, 1000 meters
228. 竏, キロリットル kirorittoru ichi kiloliters, kl, (1000 liters)
229. キロサイクル kirosaikuru ichi kilocycles, kc, 1000 cycles
230. キロワット kirowatto ichi kilowatts, kw, 1000 watts
231. 気筒 kitō ichi cylinders (engine)
232. 壺 ko ichi jars (tsubo 壺)
233. 戸 ko ichi houses, households
234. 個 ko ichi general articles, goods, luggage, hats, items, small artifacts, fruits, mochi
235. 校 kō ichi schools; proofs (corrections of printings)
236. 講 kō ichi lectures
237. 口 kō ichi kettles, pots, teacups, plates, bowls, bells; swords
238. 更 kō ichi watches of the night, lateness of the night
239. 航海 kōkai ichi sea voyages
240. 石 koku ichi former unit of capacity, 10 to (斗), 180.5 l, used esp. for rice stipends in feudal Japan; former unit of capacity, c. 278 l, 10 cubic shaku (尺), used esp. for measuring lumber
241. 国語 kokugo ichi languages
242. コマ, 齣 koma hito classes (授業 jugyō)
243. コマ, 駒, 齣 koma hito movie scenes, shows, shorts, cartoons
244. 項目 kōmoku ichi item, clause
245. 献 kon ichi offerings (drinks) of wine
246. 喉 kon ichi fish
247. 光年 kōnen ichi light years
248. コペック kopekku ichi kopek, Russian monetary unit
249. 梱 kori hito raw silk (thread) (生糸 kīto), luggage (荷物)
250. 腰 koshi hito objects attached to the waist, as swords, hakama, quiver, etc.
251. 区 ku ichi sections
252. 躯 ku ichi statues (of gods)
253. 句 ku ichi haiku, senryū
254. 口 ku ichi swords (刀), razors (剃刀), kettles (釜), pots, dishes (皿 sara)
255. 口 kuchi hito mouthfuls; drinks (liquor)
256. 口 kuchi hito shares, units
257. 区間 kukan ichi sections between two points (as between stations for fare differences)
258. 茎 kuki hito writing brushes (筆 fude)
259. 括 kukuri hito papers
260. 組み kumi hito sets, suits, sake cups in sets of three, tiered boxes, plates, bowls, groups of people
261. クラス kurasu hito class (school)
262. クローネ kurōne ichi krone, Danish and Norwegian monetary units
263. 鎖 kusari hito chain, section of a sequence
264. 癖 kuse hito out-of-the-ordinary actions
265. 串 kushi hito dumplings (団子 dango)
266. 客 kyaku ichi utensils, tableware, etc, used for receiving guests
267. 脚 kyaku ichi legged furniture, chairs, desks, tables, armrests
268. 京 kyō (usu. kei) ichi 10 million billion, 1000 chō (兆), 10 quadrillion, 10 to the 16th
269. 曲 kyoku ichi pieces of music, songs, tunes, dances
270. 局 kyoku ichi board games, go, shogi games
271. 級 kyū ichi ordering, class, grade
272. 球 kyū ichi larger, round "ko"; pitches (baseball)
273. 間 ma hito rooms
274. 曲 mage hito tsukudani (佃煮), food boiled down in soy
275. 枚 mai ichi thin, flat objects, sheets, pages, mats, panes, order of sumo ranking, clothing, mochi
276. 哩, マイル mairu ichi miles
277. 巻 maki hito rolls of silk, cloth, scrolls, windings, scriptures, sacred books
278. 幕 maku ichi acts, performances, shows, sections of a play
279. 万 man ichi 10,000s
280. マルク maruku ichi mark, German monetary unit
281. 目 me ichi monme: unit of weight, 3.75g, 1 monme (匁); meshes of a net, stitches
282. 名 mei ichi persons (lit.), members
283. 面 men ichi flat surfaces (tennis courts, mirrors, go boards (盤 ban)) (2-dimensional "mai"); kotos
284. 米, メートル mētoru ichi meters, m
285. 味 mi ichi food or condiments
286. 粍, ミリ(メートル) miri(mētoru) ichi millimeters, mm, (1/1000 meter)
287. 瓱, ミリグラム miriguramu ichi milligrams, mg, (1/1000 gram)
288. 竓, ミリリットル miririttoru ichi milliliters, ml, (1/1000 liter)
289. ミリバール mirobāru ichi millobars
290. 毛 mō ichi former monetary unit, 1/10,000 yen (円); former unit of length, c. .03mm, 1/1000 sun (寸); former unit of weight, 3.75mg, 1/1000 monme (匁); 1/1000; 1/1000 of 10%: .0001
291. 目 moku ichi items, crosses of a go board
292. 門 mon ichi cannons
293. 問 mon ichi questions
294. 文 mon ichi former monetary unit, 1/1000 貫 (かん)
295. 文 mon hito unit of footwear size c. 2.4 cm
296. 匁 monme ichi 3.750 g, .132 oz, 2.117 drams, 1/000 kan (貫), now esp. for weighing pearls; former monetary unit, 1/60 ryō (両)
297. 盛 mori hito measures of medicine
298. 本 moto hito plants with roots
299. 棟 mune hito buildings, houses
300. 群 mure hito groups, flocks
301. 流 nagare hito flags
302. 男 nan ichi sons
303. 七日 nanuka/nanoka ichi* death anniversary (weeks) [*not 一七日, but 初七日: shonanuka]
304. 夏 natsu hito summers
305. 年 nen ichi years
306. 年間 nenkan ichi years
307. 年生 nensei ichi -grade student, -year student
308. 日 nichi ichi days (except 2-10, 20)
309. 握り nigiri hito grasped objects
310. 人 nin ichi persons, human beings (3 or more)
311. 人組 ningumi ichi group, gang members
312. 人前 ninmae ichi portions, servings (food)
313. 貫 nuki hito rosary beads, (数珠) juzu
314. 往復 ōfuku ichi return trips
315. 桶 oke hito bathtubs (浴槽 yokusō)
316. 億 oku ichi 100,000,000s
317. オンス onsu ichi ounces
318. 折り ori hito small boxes of food (orizume 折り詰め); number of foldings
319. パーセント pāsento ichi percent, %
320. 頁, ページ pēji ichi pages
321. ペンス pensu ichi pence, British monetary unit
322. ペセタ peseta ichi peseta, Spanish monetary unit
323. ペソ peso ichi peso, Mexican (et al.) monetary unit
324. ポイント pointo ichi points (type)
325. 封, 磅, ポンド pondo ichi pounds (unit of weight, about .45 kg)
326. 听, ポンド pondo ichi pound, £, British monetary unit
327. 連 ren ichi reams (of paper), strung objects, misc. linked objects or sets (chains, necklaces...), Chinese poems
328. 聨, 聯 ren ichi stanzas, verses
329. レーン rēn ichi lanes (bowling)
330. 列車 ressha ichi trains
331. 列 retsu ichi rows, columns, ranks
332. 里 ri ichi Japanese league, former unit of distance c. 3.927km, 36 chō (丁), 2.445 mi.
333. 人 ri hito persons (1 & 2 only)
334. 厘 rin ichi former monetary unit, 1/10 sen (銭), 1/1000 yen (円); former unit of length, c. 0.3mm, 1/100 sun (寸); former unit of weight, 37.5mg, 1/100 monme (匁)
335. 輪 rin ichi wheels; flowers, blossoms
336. リラ rira ichi lira, Italian monetary unit
337. 立, リットル rittoru ichi liters
338. ルーブル rūburu ichi ruble, Russian monetary unit
339. 塁 rui ichi bases (baseball)
340. 類 rui ichi kinds, types
341. ルピー rupī ichi rupee, Indian monetary unit
342. 輌 ryō ichi railway cars, vehicles, rolling stock
343. 両 ryō ichi former monetary unit, 4 bu (分) [4 kan (貫)?]; railway cars, cars; former unit of weight, 37.5g, 1/16 kin (斤)
344. 領 ryō ichi suits of armor, Japanese clothing, fusuma, surplice (袈裟 kesa)
345. 笠 ryū ichi bamboo hats
346. 旒 ryū ichi flags
347. 粒 ryū ichi grains (cereal), pills
348. 流 ryū ichi schools (systems of art...); flags
349. 下げ sage hito hakama (袴)
350. 載 sai ichi years, 100 tredecillion (10 to the 44th) (archaic)
351. 才 sai ichi unit of volume, c. 0.0278cc, 1 cubic shaku (尺), esp. for lumber or freight; unit of capacity, c. 1/10 shaku (勺); unit of sq. measure, c. 1 sq. foot, used for measuring textiles
352. 歳, 才 sai ichi years of age, years old
353. 菜 sai ichi dishes (food)
354. 匙 saji hito spoon(ful)s
355. 作 saku ichi film, literary or artistic work
356. さく saku hito block of fish prepared for sashimi, half a fish
357. 盞 san ichi cups, glasses
358. 竿, 棹 sao hito drawers, chests, cupboards, shamisen
359. 皿 sara hito 1-4 plates, helpings, sashimi
360. 差 sashi hito Noh, dances
361. 点 sashi hito eye drops (目薬)
362. 刷 satsu ichi printings
363. 札 satsu ichi papers, letters
364. 冊 satsu ichi volumes, books, magazines, copies
365. 畝 se ichi unit of sq measure, 30 bu (歩), 0.99 ares, 30 tsubo (坪), 99.17 ㎡
366. 世代 sedai ichi generations
367. 世 sei ichi generations or reign periods; 30-year periods
368. 世紀 seiki ichi centuries
369. 隻 seki ichi large ships, warships
370. 席 seki ichi theatrical performances
371. 石 seki ichi jewels of a watch, transistors, diodes
372. 選 sen ichi terms of election
373. 銭 sen ichi sen, former monetary unit, 1/100 yen (円), 10 rin (厘); formerly 1/1000 kan (貫)
374. 煎 sen ichi sencha (green tea of middle grade)
375. 戦 sen ichi games, matches
376. 川 sen ichi rivers [rare]
377. 千 sen ichi 1,000s
378. 糎, センチ(メートル) senchi(mētoru) ichi centimeters, (1/100 meter)
379. 甅, せンチグラム senchiguramu ichi centigrams (1/100 gram)
380. 竰, センチリットル senchirittoru ichi centiliters (1/100 liter)
381. 仙, セント sento ichi cent, ¢ 1/100 dollar
382. 世帯 setai ichi households
383. 節 setsu ichi sections (of a novel), paragraphs (of a composition)
384. セット setto ichi sets of clothing
385. 社 sha ichi companies, Shinto shrines
386. 車 sha ichi freight trains, cars
387. 勺 shaku ichi 0.018 l (dry/liq measure); 330.5 sq cm
388. 尺 shaku ichi .995 feet, 10 sun (寸), 303 mm (378.7 mm cloth)
389. 車線 shasen ichi lanes of traffic
390. 翅 shi ichi birds
391. 子 shi ichi go pieces
392. 指 shi ichi fingers
393. 枝 shi ichi slender objects, halberds (rare)
394. 紙 shi ichi types of newspapers
395. 詩 shi ichi Chinese poems
396. 試合 shiai ichi matches, contests
397. 敷き shiki hito room widths
398. 締め shime hito reams or bundles of paper
399. 審 shin ichi judgements stages
400. 品 shina hito courses of a meal
401. 進法 shinhō ichi system of counting
402. 進数 shinsū ichi system of counting
403. 親等 shintō ichi degree of family relationship
404. シリング shiringu ichi shilling, former British monetary unit
405. シーシー shīshī ichi cc, cubic centimeters
406. 室 shitsu ichi rooms
407. 雫, 滴 shizuku hito drops (liquid)
408. 章 shō ichi chapters
409. 升 shō ichi 10 gō (合), 3.17 pints, box measure, 1.805 l, esp. for sake or rice
410. 勝 shō ichi wins (sports)
411. 床 shō ichi beds
412. 勝負 shōbu ichi matches, contests, games
413. 色 shoku ichi colors
414. 食 shoku ichi meals
415. 株 shu ichi plants, trees
416. 種 shu ichi sorts, kinds, varieties, events (in sports programs)
417. 首 shu ichi Chinese poems, "waka", pieces
418. 朱 shu ichi former monetary unit, 1/16 ryō (両)
419. 周 shū ichi rounds, circuits, laps
420. 週(間) shū(kan) ichi weeks, order of weeks within a month
421. 周忌 shūki ichi death anniversaries
422. 周年 shūnen ichi continuous years, years in a row
423. 種類 shurui ichi sorts, kinds
424. 艘 sō ichi small ships
425. 雙, 双 sō ichi pairs (folding screens...)
426. 層 sō ichi layers, stories of a building
427. 叢 sō ichi groups, flocks
428. 則 soku ichi rules or items
429. 束 soku ichi bundles of firewood, vegetables, various items in bundles or bunches (fagots, sheaves, reams)
430. 足 soku ichi pairs of footwear, shoes, socks, pants; steps
431. 村 son ichi villages
432. 具 sonae hito kamishimo (裃) ceremonial dress, kesa (袈裟) surplice
433. 揃い soroi hito sets, suits, tongs, pairs of chopsticks, pair of skis
434. 数 sū ichi numbers of...
435. 据え sue hito bath tubs (浴槽 yokusō), bath basins (風呂桶 furooke)
436. 錘 sui ichi spindles
437. 筋 suji hito long, slender objects; roads (two dimensional 本), obi, rivers
438. 掬い sukui hito scoop(ing)s
439. 寸 sun ichi unit of length, 10 bu (分), 1.193 in, 30.3 mm (37.87 mm cloth)
440. ステージ sutēji ichi performances, shows
441. 据わり suwari hito kasane-mochi
442. 束 taba hito bundles
443. 度 tabi hito number of times
444. 袋 tai ichi bags, bagfuls
445. 体 tai ichi dead bodies, corpses, remains, ashes; images of Buddhist or Shinto deities, manequins
446. 卓 taku ichi mahjongg tables (雀卓 jantaku)
447. 玉 tama hito lump (一塊 hitokatamari) of udon, soba; small ammunition, bullets
448. 端 tan ichi scrolls
449. 段 tan ichi unit of sq measure, 10 se (畝), 9.917 ares, 300 bu (歩)
450. 反 tan ichi 36cm x ~10m (standard bolt of cloth to make kimono)
451. 単位 tani ichi units, credits
452. 垂れ tare hito blinds (curtains)
453. 樽 taru hito beverages (barrel, cask, keg, tub)
454. 立 tate ichi successive victories or defeats
455. 手 te hito Noh; moves in shogi, go, sumo; pair of arrows
456. 訂 tei ichi cows, horses, deer
457. 訂 tei ichi revised editions
458. 滴 teki ichi drops, (small, liquid round "ko")
459. 点 ten ichi marks, points (score); pieces (art, furniture), various articles
460. 店 ten ichi shops, firms
461. 斗 to ichi 15.88 quarts, 10 shō (升), 18.05 l
462. 等 tō ichi classes, grades, ranks
463. 統 tō ichi setnets (anchored fishnets) [rare]
464. 頭 tō ichi large domesticated animals, cows, horses, whales; statues
465. 刀 tō ichi katana, (Japanese) swords
466. 套 tō ichi books
467. 灯, 燈 tō ichi lamps, lights
468. 棟 tō ichi block number, blocks of flats (buildings)
469. 等分 tōbun ichi equal divisions
470. 所 tokoro hito places; (literary:) people
471. 戸前 tomae hito warehouses, storehouses, godowns
472. 屯, トン ton ichi tons
473. 通 tōri hito 1,2 ways, streets, avenues
474. 通 tōri ichi/hito kinds, ways of doing
475. つ tsu hito general inanimate units (1-9)
476. 通 tsū ichi mail, documents, letters, cards, communications
477. 坪 tsubo hito unit of sq. (land) measure, 1 bu (歩), 10 gō (合), 2 jō (畳), 6'x6', 3.30㎡, 36 sq. shaku (尺); unit of cubic measure, c. 6,000 l, 216 cu. shaku (尺), esp. for measuring earth
478. 粒 tsubu hito grains, pills, drops (small,round,solid "ko")
479. 番 tsugai hito couples, pairs (of animals)
480. 次 tsugi ichi stage on the Tokaido highway
481. 対 tsui ichi pairs (vases, tongs...), folding fans; ikebana (生花)
482. 月 tsuki hito 1-4 months
483. 撮み tsumami hito pinch, a slight amount; pinched objects
484. 包み tsutsumi hito powdered medicine
485. 通話 tsūwa ichi telephone calls
486. 綴 tsuzuri hito papers
487. 宇 u ichi temple buildings (お堂 odō)
488. 臼 usu hito mochi
489. 把 wa ichi bunches, bundles, sheaves, letters (mail)
490. 話 wa ichi stories (tales)
491. 羽 wa ichi birds, hares
492. 碗, 椀 wan ichi helpings of broth
493. 割 wari ichi tenths, units of ten percent
494. ワット watto ichi watts
495. 夜 ya ichi evenings
496. 碼, ヤード yādo ichi yards
497. 役 yaku ichi roles [of an actor playing multiple parts in a movie/play]
498. 山 yama hito 1,2 piles (fruit)
499. 余 yo ichi -odd, some more than...
500. 葉 yō ichi leaves or sheets (of paper...)
501. 翼 yoku ichi birds
502. 元, ユアン yuan ichi yuan, Chinese monetary unit
503. 裄 yuki hito hakama (袴)
504. 座 za ichi Shinto shrines, (seated) statues, deities; high mountains or forests
505. 剤 zai ichi doses (of medicine)
506. 山 zan ichi temples (寺院 jiin)
507. 膳 zen ichi pairs of chopsticks; bowls of rice, meals; small dining tables (膳 zen)
508. 絶 zetsu ichi Chinese poems
1. 雨 ame hito rain
2. アンペア anpea ichi amperes
3. 場 ba hito sections of a play
4. 倍 bai ichi multiples, times as much, duplication
5. 番 ban ichi serial numbers, theatrical performances, Noh, sumo matches, shogi (将棋)
6. 晩 ban hito nights
7. 番地 banchi ichi lot, plot numbers (in address)
8. 番目 banme ichi -ths
9. 番線 bansen ichi track numbers
10. 番手 bante ichi yarn count
11. バーツ bātsu ichi baht, Thai monetary unit
12. 弁 ben ichi flower petals
13. 尾 bi ichi fish
14. 瓶 bin hito bottles (1.8 l), vases of flowers
15. 便 bin ichi public transport runs or flights
16. 木 boku ichi lumber
17. ボルト boruto ichi volts
18. 分 bu ichi tenth part of an equally divided whole; 1/10 of 1%; former unit of length, 3.03mm (3.787mm cloth), 1/10 sun (寸), 0.119 in.; former monetary unit, 1/4 両 (りょう); unit of footwear size, 2.4mm, 1/10 mon (文)
19. 歩 bu ichi unit of sq. measure, 3.3sq m, 36 sq shaku (尺), 1 tsubo (坪), 10 gō (合), 2 jō (畳)
20. 部 bu ichi printed materials, copies, newspapers, sets of books; sections of Kanji dictionaries, scriptures
21. 分 bun ichi fraction, denominators, part
22. 文 bun ichi sentences, novels, writing
23. 秒 byō ichi seconds
24. 着 chaku ichi suits, dresses, trousers; finishing position (race, etc.)
25. 帙 chitsu ichi Japanese-style books (和書 washo)
26. 兆 chō ichi trillions
27. 張 chō ichi bows or stringed instruments; curtains, screens or nets, mosquito nets
28. 町 chō ichi former unit of length, 60 ken (間), 109.0 m; unit of sq measure, 10 tan (段), 99.17 ares
29. 挺 chō ichi long objects: guns (銃 jū), oars, guitars, palanquins, candles, items of cutlery, axes (斧 ono)
30. 提 chō ichi liquor bottles, sake bottles (tokkuri 徳利, chōshi 銚子)
31. 貼 chō ichi powdered medicine (散剤 sanzai)
32. 丁 chō ichi handled objects, carpenters' tools, scissors, pistols, saws, baskets, candles, forks; former unit of length, = 119.16 yards, 360 shaku, 109 m, 60 ken; cakes of tofu, servings (cutlets, noodles...), sheets bound Japanese style; town blocks
33. 丁目 chōme ichi ward, block
34. 打 da ichi hits (baseball?)
35. 駄 da ichi horseloads
36. 朶 da ichi long oblong chest (for clothing): nagamochi (長持); trees
37. 代 dai ichi generations, descendants, reign periods
38. 台 dai ichi vehicles; machines or mechanical devices; pair of skis; sliding ponds; 16-page units in printing, galleys
39. 題 dai ichi questions, problems
40. 弟 dai ichi children, younger brothers ?
41. 弾 dan ichi steps, measures, or stages; shots, bullets
42. 段 dan ichi steps; steps or stages; columns (of print)
43. 段落 danraku ichi paragraphs
44. 打, ダース dāsu ichi dozens
45. 立て date ichi carriage horses or boat oars; films in a multi-feature movie
46. 瓧, デかグラム dekaguramu ichi decagrams (10 grams)
47. 籵, デかメートル dekamētoru ichi decameters (10 meters)
48. 竍, デかリットル dekarittoru ichi decaliters (10 liters)
49. 瓰, デシグラム deshiguramu ichi decigrams (1/10 gram)
50. 粉, デシメートル deshimētoru ichi decimeters (1/10 meter)
51. 竕, デシリットル deshirittoru ichi deciliters (1/10 liter)
52. 度 do ichi number of times; degrees; parts of musical scale
53. 堂 dō ichi Buddhist temples
54. 撮 dori ichi number of shots (pictures) available in a roll of film
55. 弗, ドル doru ichi dollar, $
56. 柄 e ichi halberd, halbert, (なぎなた), kitchen knife, cleaver
57. 重 e hito fold, ply (of garments, cloth)
58. 枝 eda hito flowers, branches
59. 駅 eki hito 1,2 station
60. 園 en ichi kindergartens
61. 円 en ichi yen, ¥, 100 sen (銭)
62. フィート fīto ichi feet (12 inches)
63. 封 fu ichi letters (mail)
64. 筆 fude hito strokes of a brush
65. 幅 fuku ichi scrolls, paintings in scroll form
66. 服 fuku ichi doses/packets of medicine; puffs (of smoke), sips (of tea)
67. 袋 fukuro hito bags, bagfuls, sacks
68. 分 fun ichi minutes; former unit of weight, 0.375g, 1/10 monme (匁)
69. ふね fune hito container of food (as sold in a store)
70. フラン furan ichi franc, French monetary unit
71. 降 furi hito rain
72. 振 furi hito Japanese swords, halberds (naginata)
73. 房 fusa hito bunches (grapes, bananas)
74. 蓋 gai ichi lid-shaped objects such as bamboo hats (kasa 笠)
75. 学期 gakki ichi terms, semesters
76. 学年 gakunen ichi school years
77. ガロン garon ichi gallons
78. 月 gatsu ichi month names
79. ゲーム gēmu ichi games (bowling)
80. 弦 gen ichi strings (chords)
81. 元, ゲン gen ichi gen, Chinese monetary unit
82. 原子 genshi ichi number of atoms
83. 語 go ichi words, languages
84. 号 gō ichi No., number, issue; dress size
85. 合 gō ichi engagements, esp in fencing matches; lidded utensils or receptacles, incense containers (香合 kōgō; former unit of sq measure, 1/10 tsubo (坪), 10 shaku (勺), 0.330 ㎡; unit of capacity, 1/10 shō (升), 10 shaku (勺), 0.180 l; 1/10 the height of a given mountain
86. 盒 gō ichi incense containers (香合 kōgō)
87. 言 gon ichi words or letters
88. 号車 gōsha ichi train car numbers
89. 具 gu ichi sets of articles, as suits of armor, prayer beads (数珠 juzu), palanquin (駕籠 kago)
90. 瓦, グラム guramu ichi grams
91. グロス gurosu ichi gross (12 dozen), e.g. penpoints
92. 行 gyō ichi lines (of print, etc.)
93. 波 ha hito events occurring in waves
94. 葉 ha hito leaves (of a tree)
95. 鉢 hachi hito potted plants, bonsai pots
96. 敗 hai ichi defeats
97. 杯 hai ichi glassfuls, cupfuls, bowlfuls, spoonfuls, containersful, drinks; squid, octopi, cuttlefish; ships
98. 箱 hako hito boxes, boxfuls
99. 拍 haku ichi beats, number of syllables in Japanese words
100. 泊 haku ichi overnight stays
101. 版 han ichi editions
102. 犯 han ichi offenses (prior)
103. 刎 hane hito helmets (兜 kabuto)
104. 腹 hara hito tarako (鱈子) codefish roe
105. 針 hari hito seams, stitches (縫い目 nuime), meshes of a net (編み目 amime)
106. 張り hari hito bows, stringed instruments, paper lanterns, umbrellas, (curtains, objects stretched over a frame)
107. 箸 hashi hito single mouthful of food
108. 柱 hashira hito gods, mortuary tablets
109. 派 hasuri hito errand doers
110. 発 hatsu ichi shots or rounds; engines; blows
111. 瓶 hei ichi potted plants or ikebana
112. ヘクタール hekutāru ichi hectares
113. 瓸, ヘクトグラム hekutoguramu ichi hectograms (100 grams)
114. 粨, ヘクトメートル hekutomētoru ichi hectometers (100 meters)
115. 竡, ヘクトリットル hekutorittoru ichi hectoliters (100 liters)
116. 片 hen ichi fragments or flakes (irregular shaped "mai")
117. 遍 hen ichi number of times
118. 篇 hen ichi poems
119. 編 hen ichi chapters or parts; (Chinese ) poems
120. 返 hen ichi number of times
121. ヘルツ herutsu ichi hertz, hz.
122. 部屋 heya hito rooms
123. 匹 hiki ichi small animals, fish, insects (& unit of measure for rolls of cloth)
124. 疋 hiki hito counter for lengths of cloth, about 21m
125. 疋 hiki ichi animals; former monetary unit, 10 (later 25) mon (文)
126. 疋 hiki ichi unit of measure for rolls of cloth, 2 tan (反), c. 9m
127. 品 hin ichi courses of a meal; saleable things
128. 片 hira hito flower petals
129. 尋 hiro hito fathom, unit of length, c. 1.8m, 6 shaku (尺), used esp. for water depth
130. 筆 hitsu ichi documents, papers (書類 shorui); ricefields, land registrations
131. 歩 ho ichi footsteps, steps
132. 舗 ho ichi maps (literary)
133. 包 hō ichi tablets (pills), packets of (powder) medicine, tea
134. 本 hon ichi long, cylindrical objects; rounds or points of a match (karate); baseball safe hits; movies; letters
135. 百 hyaku ichi 100s
136. 俵 hyō ichi bags (straw) of rice, cereal; sackfuls
137. 票 hyō ichi votes
138. 拍子 hyōshi ichi beats, or number of syllables in Japanese words
139. 位 i ichi spirits (of the dead), ranking, place, standard (順位 jun'i)
140. 圏 īchan ichi games of mahjonng
141. 吋, インチ inchi ichi inches
142. 色 iro hito colors; kinds
143. 寺 ji ichi Buddhist temples
144. 耳 ji ichi rabbits (pairs)
145. 字 ji ichi characters, letters (kanji)
146. 時 ji ichi hours of the day, o'clock
147. 次 ji ichi numerical order or number of times
148. 時限 jigen ichi hour, period (school class)
149. 時間 jikan ichi hours
150. 軸 jiku ichi scrolls
151. 陣 jin ichi occurring in spells
152. 女 jo ichi daughters
153. 錠 jō ichi tablets, pills
154. 丈 jō ichi unit of length, 10 shaku (尺), 3.030 m
155. 乗 jō ichi vehicles (literary), numbers (powers)
156. 畳 jō ichi tatami, mats (3'x6'), roomsize
157. 帖 jō ichi quires (of paper), folding screens, karakami, volumes of Japanese books...; tatami or (straw) mats,
158. 条 jō ichi articles, sections (e.g. constitution); strip-like, slender objects, obi (帯), rivers
159. 樹 ju ichi trees
160. 什 jū ichi Chinese poems
161. 十 jū ichi 10s
162. 重 jū ichi folds, layers, plies, tiered boxes (重箱)
163. 旬 jun ichi ten-day periods; decades?
164. 巡 jun ichi rounds
165. 箇 ka ichi items, places, units of time
166. 価 ka ichi valence (Physics)
167. 日 ka hito days (2-10, 20)
168. 荷 ka ichi loads, burdens; tubs, buckets (桶 oke)
169. 課 ka ichi lessons
170. 顆, 果 ka ichi fruits, jewels, small round things, hanko (seals)
171. 菓 ka ichi fruits
172. 架 ka ichi folding screens (byōbu 屏風), framed pictures
173. 花弁 kaben ichi flower petals
174. 株 kabu hito stocks, shares; plant with roots (shrubs), trees
175. ヶ月 kagetsu ichi months
176. 籠 kago hito baskets, fruits
177. 階 kai ichi floors, stories
178. 回 kai ichi number of times, games, matches; innings
179. 葢 kai ichi hats
180. 掛 kake hito collars (襟 eri), strings (弦 gen)
181. 角形 kakkei ichi -sided figure, -agon
182. ヶ国 kakoku ichi countries
183. ヶ国語 kakokugo ichi languages
184. 角 kaku ichi angles
185. 画 kaku ichi strokes (kanji)
186. 叺 kamasu hito sugar (straw bags of)
187. 艦 kan ichi warships
188. 巻 kan ichi books of one work, volumes, reels of a film
189. 款 kan ichi articles or subsections
190. 缶, 罐 kan hito cans of nori (海苔 edible laver), tea, canned goods
191. 貫 kan ichi 1,000 monme (匁), 8.27 lb, 3.750 kg; former monetary unit, 1,000 mon (文) (Edo era: 960 mon)
192. 管 kan ichi wind instruments
193. ヶ年 kanen ichi years
194. カップ kappu ichi cups (in recipes)
195. カロリー karorī ichi calories
196. 重ね kasane hito mochi (kagami mochi) (鏡餅), tiered boxes (重箱 jūbako), layers of clothing
197. 襲 kasane ichi Japanese clothing
198. 綛, 桛 kase hito thread wound on skeins, items wound on a frame
199. 頭 kashira hito helmets, headgear worn by nobles in court dress (烏帽子 eboshi); masks (faces 面 omote)
200. ヶ所 kasho ichi places (箇所)
201. 方 kata hito persons (honorific)
202. 片食 katakia ichi meals (from Edo era when 2 meals a day were usual)
203. 塊 katamari hito lumped objects
204. 片付 katazuke hito one's tidying
205. 家族 kazoku hito 1,2 families
206. 景 kei ichi scenes, sections of a play
207. 茎 kei ichi long and narrow objects [rare], hanging lantern (灯籠 tōrō), writing brush (筆)
208. 京 kei (& kyō) ichi 10 million billion, 1000 chō (兆), 10 quadrillion, 10 to the 16th
209. 間 ken ichi unit of length, 6 shaku (尺), 1.818 m.
210. 件 ken ichi cases, matters, affairs, bills, measures
211. 剣 ken ichi Japanese swords
212. 軒 ken ichi buildings, houses
213. 鍵 ken ichi keys (of a piano)
214. 桁 keta hito 1-4 digits (number)
215. 穴 ketsu ichi holes
216. 騎 ki ichi horsemen, (mounted) horses
217. 期 ki ichi terms (school)
218. 機 ki ichi planes, aircraft; heavy machinery
219. 紀 ki ichi 12-year periods
220. 基 ki ichi machines, elevators, gravestones, stone monuments, placed things, torī, screens, dressing table
221. 斤 kin ichi catty, kin, 160 monme (匁), 0.601 kg.
222. 切 kire hito slices, cuts, pieces, bits, strips
223. キロ kiro ichi kilograms, kilometers, kiloliters
224. キロアンペヤ kiroanpeya ichi kiloamperes
225. キロボルト kiroboruto ichi kilovolts, kv, 1000 volts
226. 瓩, キログラム kiroguramu ichi kilograms, kg, (1000 grams)
227. 粁, キロメートル kiromētoru ichi kilometers, km, 1000 meters
228. 竏, キロリットル kirorittoru ichi kiloliters, kl, (1000 liters)
229. キロサイクル kirosaikuru ichi kilocycles, kc, 1000 cycles
230. キロワット kirowatto ichi kilowatts, kw, 1000 watts
231. 気筒 kitō ichi cylinders (engine)
232. 壺 ko ichi jars (tsubo 壺)
233. 戸 ko ichi houses, households
234. 個 ko ichi general articles, goods, luggage, hats, items, small artifacts, fruits, mochi
235. 校 kō ichi schools; proofs (corrections of printings)
236. 講 kō ichi lectures
237. 口 kō ichi kettles, pots, teacups, plates, bowls, bells; swords
238. 更 kō ichi watches of the night, lateness of the night
239. 航海 kōkai ichi sea voyages
240. 石 koku ichi former unit of capacity, 10 to (斗), 180.5 l, used esp. for rice stipends in feudal Japan; former unit of capacity, c. 278 l, 10 cubic shaku (尺), used esp. for measuring lumber
241. 国語 kokugo ichi languages
242. コマ, 齣 koma hito classes (授業 jugyō)
243. コマ, 駒, 齣 koma hito movie scenes, shows, shorts, cartoons
244. 項目 kōmoku ichi item, clause
245. 献 kon ichi offerings (drinks) of wine
246. 喉 kon ichi fish
247. 光年 kōnen ichi light years
248. コペック kopekku ichi kopek, Russian monetary unit
249. 梱 kori hito raw silk (thread) (生糸 kīto), luggage (荷物)
250. 腰 koshi hito objects attached to the waist, as swords, hakama, quiver, etc.
251. 区 ku ichi sections
252. 躯 ku ichi statues (of gods)
253. 句 ku ichi haiku, senryū
254. 口 ku ichi swords (刀), razors (剃刀), kettles (釜), pots, dishes (皿 sara)
255. 口 kuchi hito mouthfuls; drinks (liquor)
256. 口 kuchi hito shares, units
257. 区間 kukan ichi sections between two points (as between stations for fare differences)
258. 茎 kuki hito writing brushes (筆 fude)
259. 括 kukuri hito papers
260. 組み kumi hito sets, suits, sake cups in sets of three, tiered boxes, plates, bowls, groups of people
261. クラス kurasu hito class (school)
262. クローネ kurōne ichi krone, Danish and Norwegian monetary units
263. 鎖 kusari hito chain, section of a sequence
264. 癖 kuse hito out-of-the-ordinary actions
265. 串 kushi hito dumplings (団子 dango)
266. 客 kyaku ichi utensils, tableware, etc, used for receiving guests
267. 脚 kyaku ichi legged furniture, chairs, desks, tables, armrests
268. 京 kyō (usu. kei) ichi 10 million billion, 1000 chō (兆), 10 quadrillion, 10 to the 16th
269. 曲 kyoku ichi pieces of music, songs, tunes, dances
270. 局 kyoku ichi board games, go, shogi games
271. 級 kyū ichi ordering, class, grade
272. 球 kyū ichi larger, round "ko"; pitches (baseball)
273. 間 ma hito rooms
274. 曲 mage hito tsukudani (佃煮), food boiled down in soy
275. 枚 mai ichi thin, flat objects, sheets, pages, mats, panes, order of sumo ranking, clothing, mochi
276. 哩, マイル mairu ichi miles
277. 巻 maki hito rolls of silk, cloth, scrolls, windings, scriptures, sacred books
278. 幕 maku ichi acts, performances, shows, sections of a play
279. 万 man ichi 10,000s
280. マルク maruku ichi mark, German monetary unit
281. 目 me ichi monme: unit of weight, 3.75g, 1 monme (匁); meshes of a net, stitches
282. 名 mei ichi persons (lit.), members
283. 面 men ichi flat surfaces (tennis courts, mirrors, go boards (盤 ban)) (2-dimensional "mai"); kotos
284. 米, メートル mētoru ichi meters, m
285. 味 mi ichi food or condiments
286. 粍, ミリ(メートル) miri(mētoru) ichi millimeters, mm, (1/1000 meter)
287. 瓱, ミリグラム miriguramu ichi milligrams, mg, (1/1000 gram)
288. 竓, ミリリットル miririttoru ichi milliliters, ml, (1/1000 liter)
289. ミリバール mirobāru ichi millobars
290. 毛 mō ichi former monetary unit, 1/10,000 yen (円); former unit of length, c. .03mm, 1/1000 sun (寸); former unit of weight, 3.75mg, 1/1000 monme (匁); 1/1000; 1/1000 of 10%: .0001
291. 目 moku ichi items, crosses of a go board
292. 門 mon ichi cannons
293. 問 mon ichi questions
294. 文 mon ichi former monetary unit, 1/1000 貫 (かん)
295. 文 mon hito unit of footwear size c. 2.4 cm
296. 匁 monme ichi 3.750 g, .132 oz, 2.117 drams, 1/000 kan (貫), now esp. for weighing pearls; former monetary unit, 1/60 ryō (両)
297. 盛 mori hito measures of medicine
298. 本 moto hito plants with roots
299. 棟 mune hito buildings, houses
300. 群 mure hito groups, flocks
301. 流 nagare hito flags
302. 男 nan ichi sons
303. 七日 nanuka/nanoka ichi* death anniversary (weeks) [*not 一七日, but 初七日: shonanuka]
304. 夏 natsu hito summers
305. 年 nen ichi years
306. 年間 nenkan ichi years
307. 年生 nensei ichi -grade student, -year student
308. 日 nichi ichi days (except 2-10, 20)
309. 握り nigiri hito grasped objects
310. 人 nin ichi persons, human beings (3 or more)
311. 人組 ningumi ichi group, gang members
312. 人前 ninmae ichi portions, servings (food)
313. 貫 nuki hito rosary beads, (数珠) juzu
314. 往復 ōfuku ichi return trips
315. 桶 oke hito bathtubs (浴槽 yokusō)
316. 億 oku ichi 100,000,000s
317. オンス onsu ichi ounces
318. 折り ori hito small boxes of food (orizume 折り詰め); number of foldings
319. パーセント pāsento ichi percent, %
320. 頁, ページ pēji ichi pages
321. ペンス pensu ichi pence, British monetary unit
322. ペセタ peseta ichi peseta, Spanish monetary unit
323. ペソ peso ichi peso, Mexican (et al.) monetary unit
324. ポイント pointo ichi points (type)
325. 封, 磅, ポンド pondo ichi pounds (unit of weight, about .45 kg)
326. 听, ポンド pondo ichi pound, £, British monetary unit
327. 連 ren ichi reams (of paper), strung objects, misc. linked objects or sets (chains, necklaces...), Chinese poems
328. 聨, 聯 ren ichi stanzas, verses
329. レーン rēn ichi lanes (bowling)
330. 列車 ressha ichi trains
331. 列 retsu ichi rows, columns, ranks
332. 里 ri ichi Japanese league, former unit of distance c. 3.927km, 36 chō (丁), 2.445 mi.
333. 人 ri hito persons (1 & 2 only)
334. 厘 rin ichi former monetary unit, 1/10 sen (銭), 1/1000 yen (円); former unit of length, c. 0.3mm, 1/100 sun (寸); former unit of weight, 37.5mg, 1/100 monme (匁)
335. 輪 rin ichi wheels; flowers, blossoms
336. リラ rira ichi lira, Italian monetary unit
337. 立, リットル rittoru ichi liters
338. ルーブル rūburu ichi ruble, Russian monetary unit
339. 塁 rui ichi bases (baseball)
340. 類 rui ichi kinds, types
341. ルピー rupī ichi rupee, Indian monetary unit
342. 輌 ryō ichi railway cars, vehicles, rolling stock
343. 両 ryō ichi former monetary unit, 4 bu (分) [4 kan (貫)?]; railway cars, cars; former unit of weight, 37.5g, 1/16 kin (斤)
344. 領 ryō ichi suits of armor, Japanese clothing, fusuma, surplice (袈裟 kesa)
345. 笠 ryū ichi bamboo hats
346. 旒 ryū ichi flags
347. 粒 ryū ichi grains (cereal), pills
348. 流 ryū ichi schools (systems of art...); flags
349. 下げ sage hito hakama (袴)
350. 載 sai ichi years, 100 tredecillion (10 to the 44th) (archaic)
351. 才 sai ichi unit of volume, c. 0.0278cc, 1 cubic shaku (尺), esp. for lumber or freight; unit of capacity, c. 1/10 shaku (勺); unit of sq. measure, c. 1 sq. foot, used for measuring textiles
352. 歳, 才 sai ichi years of age, years old
353. 菜 sai ichi dishes (food)
354. 匙 saji hito spoon(ful)s
355. 作 saku ichi film, literary or artistic work
356. さく saku hito block of fish prepared for sashimi, half a fish
357. 盞 san ichi cups, glasses
358. 竿, 棹 sao hito drawers, chests, cupboards, shamisen
359. 皿 sara hito 1-4 plates, helpings, sashimi
360. 差 sashi hito Noh, dances
361. 点 sashi hito eye drops (目薬)
362. 刷 satsu ichi printings
363. 札 satsu ichi papers, letters
364. 冊 satsu ichi volumes, books, magazines, copies
365. 畝 se ichi unit of sq measure, 30 bu (歩), 0.99 ares, 30 tsubo (坪), 99.17 ㎡
366. 世代 sedai ichi generations
367. 世 sei ichi generations or reign periods; 30-year periods
368. 世紀 seiki ichi centuries
369. 隻 seki ichi large ships, warships
370. 席 seki ichi theatrical performances
371. 石 seki ichi jewels of a watch, transistors, diodes
372. 選 sen ichi terms of election
373. 銭 sen ichi sen, former monetary unit, 1/100 yen (円), 10 rin (厘); formerly 1/1000 kan (貫)
374. 煎 sen ichi sencha (green tea of middle grade)
375. 戦 sen ichi games, matches
376. 川 sen ichi rivers [rare]
377. 千 sen ichi 1,000s
378. 糎, センチ(メートル) senchi(mētoru) ichi centimeters, (1/100 meter)
379. 甅, せンチグラム senchiguramu ichi centigrams (1/100 gram)
380. 竰, センチリットル senchirittoru ichi centiliters (1/100 liter)
381. 仙, セント sento ichi cent, ¢ 1/100 dollar
382. 世帯 setai ichi households
383. 節 setsu ichi sections (of a novel), paragraphs (of a composition)
384. セット setto ichi sets of clothing
385. 社 sha ichi companies, Shinto shrines
386. 車 sha ichi freight trains, cars
387. 勺 shaku ichi 0.018 l (dry/liq measure); 330.5 sq cm
388. 尺 shaku ichi .995 feet, 10 sun (寸), 303 mm (378.7 mm cloth)
389. 車線 shasen ichi lanes of traffic
390. 翅 shi ichi birds
391. 子 shi ichi go pieces
392. 指 shi ichi fingers
393. 枝 shi ichi slender objects, halberds (rare)
394. 紙 shi ichi types of newspapers
395. 詩 shi ichi Chinese poems
396. 試合 shiai ichi matches, contests
397. 敷き shiki hito room widths
398. 締め shime hito reams or bundles of paper
399. 審 shin ichi judgements stages
400. 品 shina hito courses of a meal
401. 進法 shinhō ichi system of counting
402. 進数 shinsū ichi system of counting
403. 親等 shintō ichi degree of family relationship
404. シリング shiringu ichi shilling, former British monetary unit
405. シーシー shīshī ichi cc, cubic centimeters
406. 室 shitsu ichi rooms
407. 雫, 滴 shizuku hito drops (liquid)
408. 章 shō ichi chapters
409. 升 shō ichi 10 gō (合), 3.17 pints, box measure, 1.805 l, esp. for sake or rice
410. 勝 shō ichi wins (sports)
411. 床 shō ichi beds
412. 勝負 shōbu ichi matches, contests, games
413. 色 shoku ichi colors
414. 食 shoku ichi meals
415. 株 shu ichi plants, trees
416. 種 shu ichi sorts, kinds, varieties, events (in sports programs)
417. 首 shu ichi Chinese poems, "waka", pieces
418. 朱 shu ichi former monetary unit, 1/16 ryō (両)
419. 周 shū ichi rounds, circuits, laps
420. 週(間) shū(kan) ichi weeks, order of weeks within a month
421. 周忌 shūki ichi death anniversaries
422. 周年 shūnen ichi continuous years, years in a row
423. 種類 shurui ichi sorts, kinds
424. 艘 sō ichi small ships
425. 雙, 双 sō ichi pairs (folding screens...)
426. 層 sō ichi layers, stories of a building
427. 叢 sō ichi groups, flocks
428. 則 soku ichi rules or items
429. 束 soku ichi bundles of firewood, vegetables, various items in bundles or bunches (fagots, sheaves, reams)
430. 足 soku ichi pairs of footwear, shoes, socks, pants; steps
431. 村 son ichi villages
432. 具 sonae hito kamishimo (裃) ceremonial dress, kesa (袈裟) surplice
433. 揃い soroi hito sets, suits, tongs, pairs of chopsticks, pair of skis
434. 数 sū ichi numbers of...
435. 据え sue hito bath tubs (浴槽 yokusō), bath basins (風呂桶 furooke)
436. 錘 sui ichi spindles
437. 筋 suji hito long, slender objects; roads (two dimensional 本), obi, rivers
438. 掬い sukui hito scoop(ing)s
439. 寸 sun ichi unit of length, 10 bu (分), 1.193 in, 30.3 mm (37.87 mm cloth)
440. ステージ sutēji ichi performances, shows
441. 据わり suwari hito kasane-mochi
442. 束 taba hito bundles
443. 度 tabi hito number of times
444. 袋 tai ichi bags, bagfuls
445. 体 tai ichi dead bodies, corpses, remains, ashes; images of Buddhist or Shinto deities, manequins
446. 卓 taku ichi mahjongg tables (雀卓 jantaku)
447. 玉 tama hito lump (一塊 hitokatamari) of udon, soba; small ammunition, bullets
448. 端 tan ichi scrolls
449. 段 tan ichi unit of sq measure, 10 se (畝), 9.917 ares, 300 bu (歩)
450. 反 tan ichi 36cm x ~10m (standard bolt of cloth to make kimono)
451. 単位 tani ichi units, credits
452. 垂れ tare hito blinds (curtains)
453. 樽 taru hito beverages (barrel, cask, keg, tub)
454. 立 tate ichi successive victories or defeats
455. 手 te hito Noh; moves in shogi, go, sumo; pair of arrows
456. 訂 tei ichi cows, horses, deer
457. 訂 tei ichi revised editions
458. 滴 teki ichi drops, (small, liquid round "ko")
459. 点 ten ichi marks, points (score); pieces (art, furniture), various articles
460. 店 ten ichi shops, firms
461. 斗 to ichi 15.88 quarts, 10 shō (升), 18.05 l
462. 等 tō ichi classes, grades, ranks
463. 統 tō ichi setnets (anchored fishnets) [rare]
464. 頭 tō ichi large domesticated animals, cows, horses, whales; statues
465. 刀 tō ichi katana, (Japanese) swords
466. 套 tō ichi books
467. 灯, 燈 tō ichi lamps, lights
468. 棟 tō ichi block number, blocks of flats (buildings)
469. 等分 tōbun ichi equal divisions
470. 所 tokoro hito places; (literary:) people
471. 戸前 tomae hito warehouses, storehouses, godowns
472. 屯, トン ton ichi tons
473. 通 tōri hito 1,2 ways, streets, avenues
474. 通 tōri ichi/hito kinds, ways of doing
475. つ tsu hito general inanimate units (1-9)
476. 通 tsū ichi mail, documents, letters, cards, communications
477. 坪 tsubo hito unit of sq. (land) measure, 1 bu (歩), 10 gō (合), 2 jō (畳), 6'x6', 3.30㎡, 36 sq. shaku (尺); unit of cubic measure, c. 6,000 l, 216 cu. shaku (尺), esp. for measuring earth
478. 粒 tsubu hito grains, pills, drops (small,round,solid "ko")
479. 番 tsugai hito couples, pairs (of animals)
480. 次 tsugi ichi stage on the Tokaido highway
481. 対 tsui ichi pairs (vases, tongs...), folding fans; ikebana (生花)
482. 月 tsuki hito 1-4 months
483. 撮み tsumami hito pinch, a slight amount; pinched objects
484. 包み tsutsumi hito powdered medicine
485. 通話 tsūwa ichi telephone calls
486. 綴 tsuzuri hito papers
487. 宇 u ichi temple buildings (お堂 odō)
488. 臼 usu hito mochi
489. 把 wa ichi bunches, bundles, sheaves, letters (mail)
490. 話 wa ichi stories (tales)
491. 羽 wa ichi birds, hares
492. 碗, 椀 wan ichi helpings of broth
493. 割 wari ichi tenths, units of ten percent
494. ワット watto ichi watts
495. 夜 ya ichi evenings
496. 碼, ヤード yādo ichi yards
497. 役 yaku ichi roles [of an actor playing multiple parts in a movie/play]
498. 山 yama hito 1,2 piles (fruit)
499. 余 yo ichi -odd, some more than...
500. 葉 yō ichi leaves or sheets (of paper...)
501. 翼 yoku ichi birds
502. 元, ユアン yuan ichi yuan, Chinese monetary unit
503. 裄 yuki hito hakama (袴)
504. 座 za ichi Shinto shrines, (seated) statues, deities; high mountains or forests
505. 剤 zai ichi doses (of medicine)
506. 山 zan ichi temples (寺院 jiin)
507. 膳 zen ichi pairs of chopsticks; bowls of rice, meals; small dining tables (膳 zen)
508. 絶 zetsu ichi Chinese poems
kanji
The numbers 1, 2, 3, and 10, 20, 30 have more complex forms,
used, for example, on legal documents, for financial transactions, etc.,
which cannot be as easily modified as the standard forms:
# usual
kanji document
kanji reading kana
1 一 壱 ichi いち, いっ
2 二 弐 貳 貮 ni に
3 三 参 參 san
(mairu) さん
10 十 拾 jū
(hirou) じゅう
20 二十 廿 nijū
にじゅう
30 三十 三拾 卅 sanjū
さんじゅう
A section of the printing history page of the 1955 (Shōwa 30) printing of Takehara's 1941 "A Standard Japanese-English Dictionary (Abridged Edition)." showing 壱 (1), 弐 (2),参, (3) and 拾 (10).
A section of the copyright page of the 1906 printing of Brinkley's 1896 (Meiji 29) "An Unabridged Japanese-English Dictionary" showing 廿 (20) and 卅 (30).
Japanese Eras and Gregorian Years
Era Start Date End Date Conversion to
Gregorian year
明治
Meiji September 8, 1868 July 30, 1912 Meiji + 1867
大正
Taishō July 30, 1912 December 25, 1926 Taishō + 1911
昭和
Shōwa December 25, 1926 January 7, 1989 Shōwa + 1925
平成
Heisei January 7, 1989 Present Heisei + 1988
Nihongo
used, for example, on legal documents, for financial transactions, etc.,
which cannot be as easily modified as the standard forms:
# usual
kanji document
kanji reading kana
1 一 壱 ichi いち, いっ
2 二 弐 貳 貮 ni に
3 三 参 參 san
(mairu) さん
10 十 拾 jū
(hirou) じゅう
20 二十 廿 nijū
にじゅう
30 三十 三拾 卅 sanjū
さんじゅう
A section of the printing history page of the 1955 (Shōwa 30) printing of Takehara's 1941 "A Standard Japanese-English Dictionary (Abridged Edition)." showing 壱 (1), 弐 (2),参, (3) and 拾 (10).
A section of the copyright page of the 1906 printing of Brinkley's 1896 (Meiji 29) "An Unabridged Japanese-English Dictionary" showing 廿 (20) and 卅 (30).
Japanese Eras and Gregorian Years
Era Start Date End Date Conversion to
Gregorian year
明治
Meiji September 8, 1868 July 30, 1912 Meiji + 1867
大正
Taishō July 30, 1912 December 25, 1926 Taishō + 1911
昭和
Shōwa December 25, 1926 January 7, 1989 Shōwa + 1925
平成
Heisei January 7, 1989 Present Heisei + 1988
Nihongo
Kamis, 27 Januari 2011
Basic Japanese Sounds
Basic Japanese Sounds
Japanese sounds are easy to hear and pronounce. Each syllable is simple, short, and usually enunciated very clearly. With a little practice, you'll get used to them quickly. This section gets you off on the right foot (or should I say the right sound) by looking at vowels, consonants, and a couple of letter combinations.
Vowel sounds
Japanese has only five basic vowels - a, e, i, o, and u - all of which sound short and crisp - plus their longer counterparts, a, e, i, o, andu. Short and long vowel sounds in Japanese are quite different than they are in English. In Japanese, long vowels have the same sounds as short vowels - you just draw out the sounds for a moment longer. To an English-speaking ear, a long Japanese vowel sounds as if it is being stressed.
Short and long vowel sounds in Japanese are quite different than they are in English. In Japanese, long vowels have the same sounds as short vowels - you just draw out the sounds for a moment longer. To an English-speaking ear, a long Japanese vowel sounds as if it's being stressed.
Japanese Vowel Sounds
Letter Pronunciation English Word
with the Sound Example
a a aa obasan (o-ba-san; aunt)
a a - obaasan (o-ba-san; grandmother)
e ee bed Seto (se-to; a city in Japan)
e ehh - seto (seh-to; pupil)
i i feet ojisan (o-ji-san;uncle)
ii ii - ojisan (o-ji-i-san; grandfather
0 o dome tori (to-ri; bird)
0 oo - tori (to-o-ri; street)
u u foot yuki (yu-ki; snow)
u uu - yuiki (yu-i-ki; courage)
In Japanese, any two vowels can appear next to each other in a word. You may hear them as one vowel sound, but to the Japanese, they sound like two vowels. For example, ai (ah-ee; love) sounds like one vowel - the English i (as in eye) - but to the Japanese, it's actually two vowels, not one. The word koi (koh-ee; carp) sounds like the one-syllable English word coy, but in Japanese, koi is a two-syllable word.
Table below lists some other common vowel combinations. Some of them may sound awfully similar to you, but Japanese speakers hear them differently. Try saying them aloud so that you can hear the differences.
Vowel Combinations
Vowel Combination Pronunciation Translation
Ai a-i love
Mae ma-e front
Ao a-o blue
Au a-u meet
Ue u-e up
Koi ko-i carp
Koe ko-e voice
The vowels i (ee) and u (oo) come out as a whisper whenever they fall between the consonant sounds ch, h, k, p, s, sh, t, and ts or whenever a word ends in this consonant-vowel combination. What do those consonants have in common? They're what linguists call "voiceless," meaning that they don't make your vocal cords vibrate. Put your hand over your vocal cords and say a voiceless consonant like the k sound. Then say a "voiced" consonant like the g sound.
Words with Whispered Vowels
Japanese Pronunciation Translation
Suketo Su-Ke-to skating
Kusai Ku-Sa-i stinky
Ashita A-Shi-ta tommorow
So desu so-du-su that's right
Words without Whispered Vowels
Japanese Pronunciation Translation
Sugoi Su-go-i amazing; wow
Kuni Ku-ni country
Kagu Ka-gu furniture
Consonant sounds
Fortunately, most Japanese consonants are pronounced as they are in English. Table below describes the sounds that you need to pay attention to.
Japanese Consonants Different from English
Consonant Description of the Sound Examples
r Here you tap your tounge on the roof of your mouth just once - almost like an English f-somewhere between an f and an h sound. rakuda (ra-ku-da; camel); toca (toh-rah; tiger); tori (toh-ree; bird)
f A much softer sound than the English f-somewhere between an f and an h sound. Make the sound by bringing your lips close to each other and gently blowing air through them. Fujisan (foo-jee-sahn; Mt. Fuji); tofu (tohh-foo; bean curd); fufu (fu-fu; married couple)
ts The combination is hard to pronounce at the beginning of a word, as in tsunami, although it's easy anywhere else. Try saying the word cats in your head and then saying tsunami. tsunami (tsoo-nah-mee; tidal wave); tsuki (tsu-ki; the moon)
ry The combination of rand yis difficult to pronounce when it occurs before the vowel o. Try saying ri (ree) and then yo (yoh). Repeat many times and gradually increase the speed until you can pronounce the two sounds simultaneously. Remember that the rsounds almost like a dm English. ryo (ryohh; dormitory); ryokan (ryo-kan; Japanese-style inn)
Like most other languages, Japanese has double consonants. You pronounce these double consonants - pp, tt, kk, and ss - as single consonants preceded by a brief pause. Check out the following examples:
* kekkon (kehk-kohn; marriage)
* kippu (keep-poo; tickets)
* kitte (keet-teh; stamps)
* massugu (mahs-soo-goo; straight)
Japanese sounds are easy to hear and pronounce. Each syllable is simple, short, and usually enunciated very clearly. With a little practice, you'll get used to them quickly. This section gets you off on the right foot (or should I say the right sound) by looking at vowels, consonants, and a couple of letter combinations.
Vowel sounds
Japanese has only five basic vowels - a, e, i, o, and u - all of which sound short and crisp - plus their longer counterparts, a, e, i, o, andu. Short and long vowel sounds in Japanese are quite different than they are in English. In Japanese, long vowels have the same sounds as short vowels - you just draw out the sounds for a moment longer. To an English-speaking ear, a long Japanese vowel sounds as if it is being stressed.
Short and long vowel sounds in Japanese are quite different than they are in English. In Japanese, long vowels have the same sounds as short vowels - you just draw out the sounds for a moment longer. To an English-speaking ear, a long Japanese vowel sounds as if it's being stressed.
Japanese Vowel Sounds
Letter Pronunciation English Word
with the Sound Example
a a aa obasan (o-ba-san; aunt)
a a - obaasan (o-ba-san; grandmother)
e ee bed Seto (se-to; a city in Japan)
e ehh - seto (seh-to; pupil)
i i feet ojisan (o-ji-san;uncle)
ii ii - ojisan (o-ji-i-san; grandfather
0 o dome tori (to-ri; bird)
0 oo - tori (to-o-ri; street)
u u foot yuki (yu-ki; snow)
u uu - yuiki (yu-i-ki; courage)
In Japanese, any two vowels can appear next to each other in a word. You may hear them as one vowel sound, but to the Japanese, they sound like two vowels. For example, ai (ah-ee; love) sounds like one vowel - the English i (as in eye) - but to the Japanese, it's actually two vowels, not one. The word koi (koh-ee; carp) sounds like the one-syllable English word coy, but in Japanese, koi is a two-syllable word.
Table below lists some other common vowel combinations. Some of them may sound awfully similar to you, but Japanese speakers hear them differently. Try saying them aloud so that you can hear the differences.
Vowel Combinations
Vowel Combination Pronunciation Translation
Ai a-i love
Mae ma-e front
Ao a-o blue
Au a-u meet
Ue u-e up
Koi ko-i carp
Koe ko-e voice
The vowels i (ee) and u (oo) come out as a whisper whenever they fall between the consonant sounds ch, h, k, p, s, sh, t, and ts or whenever a word ends in this consonant-vowel combination. What do those consonants have in common? They're what linguists call "voiceless," meaning that they don't make your vocal cords vibrate. Put your hand over your vocal cords and say a voiceless consonant like the k sound. Then say a "voiced" consonant like the g sound.
Words with Whispered Vowels
Japanese Pronunciation Translation
Suketo Su-Ke-to skating
Kusai Ku-Sa-i stinky
Ashita A-Shi-ta tommorow
So desu so-du-su that's right
Words without Whispered Vowels
Japanese Pronunciation Translation
Sugoi Su-go-i amazing; wow
Kuni Ku-ni country
Kagu Ka-gu furniture
Consonant sounds
Fortunately, most Japanese consonants are pronounced as they are in English. Table below describes the sounds that you need to pay attention to.
Japanese Consonants Different from English
Consonant Description of the Sound Examples
r Here you tap your tounge on the roof of your mouth just once - almost like an English f-somewhere between an f and an h sound. rakuda (ra-ku-da; camel); toca (toh-rah; tiger); tori (toh-ree; bird)
f A much softer sound than the English f-somewhere between an f and an h sound. Make the sound by bringing your lips close to each other and gently blowing air through them. Fujisan (foo-jee-sahn; Mt. Fuji); tofu (tohh-foo; bean curd); fufu (fu-fu; married couple)
ts The combination is hard to pronounce at the beginning of a word, as in tsunami, although it's easy anywhere else. Try saying the word cats in your head and then saying tsunami. tsunami (tsoo-nah-mee; tidal wave); tsuki (tsu-ki; the moon)
ry The combination of rand yis difficult to pronounce when it occurs before the vowel o. Try saying ri (ree) and then yo (yoh). Repeat many times and gradually increase the speed until you can pronounce the two sounds simultaneously. Remember that the rsounds almost like a dm English. ryo (ryohh; dormitory); ryokan (ryo-kan; Japanese-style inn)
Like most other languages, Japanese has double consonants. You pronounce these double consonants - pp, tt, kk, and ss - as single consonants preceded by a brief pause. Check out the following examples:
* kekkon (kehk-kohn; marriage)
* kippu (keep-poo; tickets)
* kitte (keet-teh; stamps)
* massugu (mahs-soo-goo; straight)
katakana alphabet
Few rules for making Katakana words with katakana charts
Katakana characters are made by modifying Japanese kanjis. As we mentioned in Learn Japanese Lesson 1, Katakana alphabets are mainly used for foreign language words such as names and words that have been borrowed from other languages. The Japanese language does not have as many sounds as the English language.
You should be very careful while forming words using Japanese katakana script and should follow the rules. Sounds of katakana characters are same as that of hiragana characters. Katakana also consists of Consonant clusters same as hiragana. It is very important to follow the stroke order while writing this script. Some of the katakana characters are very similar to hiragana characters and also some of the katakana characters are very similar to the other katakana characters, there is a difference of only one stroke, so be very careful while learning katakana script. A difference between katakana and hiragana is that katakana stroke are mostly straight whereas the strokes of hiragana characters are slightly curved. But there are a few katakana characters which do have curved strokes. Few rules while making katakana words are as follows:-
* As there is no "l" pronunciation in Japanese language if a word foreign word end in sound "l" then while writing it in katakana you should end it with a "ru" sound. E.g. Table – teburu (te-bu-ru)
* A word ending either with "otion" or in "ation" in English should always be written as "shon" in katakana. E.g. motion – moshon (mo-sho-n).
* In a word if two vowels come together, it is indicated by using a " – " . E.g. Soup – su-pu
Katakana has many rules but you will start understanding the words only through practice and reading. Initially it will be a little difficult but once you get a habit of it you will no more find it difficult.
All Katakana alphabets are divided into four groups. Shown below are four katakana charts for learning katakana faster.
Katakana Chart-1
Katakana chart
Katakana Chart-2
Katakana alphabet
Katakana Chart-3
Katakana characters
Katakana Chart-4
Katakana
A few important things to remember about katakana are:
* Similar to hiragana in katakana also “ji” of the “Da” series is not at all used while “Zu” of this series used very hardly ever. On the other hand “Ji” and “Zu” of the “Za” series is used while making words.
* The single character “Wo/ O” is not at all used. Not even as a particle. Its existence is only for completing the script.
* The katakana character “he” is same as the hiragana character “he”.
* The difference between “shi” and “tsu” in katakana is that the big line in shi goes from down to up. On the other hand in “tsu” the big line goes from up to down. Please observe this minute difference.
* In the same way the minute difference which you have to observe while writing “so” and “n” is that the line goes from up to down in “so”. On the other hand the line goes from down to up in “n”.
* Write “ri” very clearly as people get confused between “ri” and “so” when not written properly.
* There is a difference of only one stroke in the katakana characters “ka”, “ki” and “ya” and those of hiragana.
* Also observe the difference between hiragana “mo” and katakana “mo”. In katakana “mo” the vertical line should not go above the upper horizontal line. On the other hand, in hiragana the vertical line does go above the upper horizontal line.
It is very important to follow all the rules and to keep in mind all the above mentioned minute differences between characters while writing katakana. Always write katakana very clearly so that the reader does not get confused between the characters.
Katakana characters are made by modifying Japanese kanjis. As we mentioned in Learn Japanese Lesson 1, Katakana alphabets are mainly used for foreign language words such as names and words that have been borrowed from other languages. The Japanese language does not have as many sounds as the English language.
You should be very careful while forming words using Japanese katakana script and should follow the rules. Sounds of katakana characters are same as that of hiragana characters. Katakana also consists of Consonant clusters same as hiragana. It is very important to follow the stroke order while writing this script. Some of the katakana characters are very similar to hiragana characters and also some of the katakana characters are very similar to the other katakana characters, there is a difference of only one stroke, so be very careful while learning katakana script. A difference between katakana and hiragana is that katakana stroke are mostly straight whereas the strokes of hiragana characters are slightly curved. But there are a few katakana characters which do have curved strokes. Few rules while making katakana words are as follows:-
* As there is no "l" pronunciation in Japanese language if a word foreign word end in sound "l" then while writing it in katakana you should end it with a "ru" sound. E.g. Table – teburu (te-bu-ru)
* A word ending either with "otion" or in "ation" in English should always be written as "shon" in katakana. E.g. motion – moshon (mo-sho-n).
* In a word if two vowels come together, it is indicated by using a " – " . E.g. Soup – su-pu
Katakana has many rules but you will start understanding the words only through practice and reading. Initially it will be a little difficult but once you get a habit of it you will no more find it difficult.
All Katakana alphabets are divided into four groups. Shown below are four katakana charts for learning katakana faster.
Katakana Chart-1
Katakana chart
Katakana Chart-2
Katakana alphabet
Katakana Chart-3
Katakana characters
Katakana Chart-4
Katakana
A few important things to remember about katakana are:
* Similar to hiragana in katakana also “ji” of the “Da” series is not at all used while “Zu” of this series used very hardly ever. On the other hand “Ji” and “Zu” of the “Za” series is used while making words.
* The single character “Wo/ O” is not at all used. Not even as a particle. Its existence is only for completing the script.
* The katakana character “he” is same as the hiragana character “he”.
* The difference between “shi” and “tsu” in katakana is that the big line in shi goes from down to up. On the other hand in “tsu” the big line goes from up to down. Please observe this minute difference.
* In the same way the minute difference which you have to observe while writing “so” and “n” is that the line goes from up to down in “so”. On the other hand the line goes from down to up in “n”.
* Write “ri” very clearly as people get confused between “ri” and “so” when not written properly.
* There is a difference of only one stroke in the katakana characters “ka”, “ki” and “ya” and those of hiragana.
* Also observe the difference between hiragana “mo” and katakana “mo”. In katakana “mo” the vertical line should not go above the upper horizontal line. On the other hand, in hiragana the vertical line does go above the upper horizontal line.
It is very important to follow all the rules and to keep in mind all the above mentioned minute differences between characters while writing katakana. Always write katakana very clearly so that the reader does not get confused between the characters.
hiragana alphabet .japanese learning
Hiragana
Japanese includes three scripts. The very first script, which is to be learnt in the Japanese Language, is called Hiragana. It is the very basic script. Hiragana was made by modifying the Kanji letters. In the ancient times when Hiragana was made, many Japanese people did not accept it. The men used only Chinese characters in their writings. As the women were not allowed to receive the same level of education as that of men, the women started using hiragana first. Earlier for writing unofficial documents, only Hiragana was used. Whereas, for official documents both katakana and kanji were used. Hiragana is used for words, which do not have Kanji. It is also used as suffixes, prefixes and particles. As we cannot change kanji into different tenses, it is written in Hiragana at such times.
There are 46 basic Hiragana characters. It includes
* 1) 5 main vowels, which are ‘a’ pronounced as ‘aa’ as in ‘mark’ ‘i’ pronounced as ‘i’ as in ‘eat’ ‘u’ pronounced as ‘oo’ as in ‘soon’ ‘e’ pronounced as ‘e’ as in ‘tell’ ‘o’ pronounced as ‘o’ as in ‘more’
* 2) 39 consonants which are made by joining a vowel at the end of a character like "ka", "ki", "ku", "ke", "ko"
* 3) One single consonant "n"
* 4) An alphabet "wo" pronounced "o".
When "tenten or Maru" is added to, some of the main characters, new characters are formed. Tenten are two small lines written at the head of a consonant. Maru is a small circle written at the head of a consonant. For example, if tenten is added to "ka" becomes "ga" or "sa" become "za". In addition, if maru is added to "ha" it becomes "ba".
When either "ya", "yu" or "yo" character is written at the foot of any "I" ending character then they form the consonant clusters.
While writing hiragana, katakana or kanji, one needs to follow a particular stroke order. Stroke order is called as "Kakijun" in Japanese. It actually means the sequential steps to write a particular character. Also, while forming Japanese words by using hiragana script, there are a few rules one needs to follow. They are:-
* 1) Nasal sound: Words, which have a nasal sound it consists of the consonant ‘n’ as in "enpitsu", which means pencil.
* 2) Double consonants: When a small "tsu" is written in a word then the consonant after that is repeated twice as in "gakkou" which means school.
* 3) Long pronunciation: Whenever vowel "u" comes after any "o" ending character then the sound "o" is prolonged. Similarly, whenever "a", "i", "u", "e", "o" comes after any "a", "i", "u", "e", "o" ending character then also the respective sound is prolonged.
Following are the Hiragana charts to help you learn hiragana:-
Hiragana chart-1
hiragana
Hiragana chart-2
hiragana
Hiragana chart-3
hiragana
There are a few important things, which one should be very clear about and should always remember it. They are :-
* The "wo/ o" consonant is used only as a particle. It is not used in forming words.
* The consonants "ji" and "zu" come in two different series. The "ji" which occurs in the "Da" series is not at all used whereas the "Zu" is used very rarely. The "Ji" and "Zu" which occur in the "Za" series is always used in forming words.
Japanese includes three scripts. The very first script, which is to be learnt in the Japanese Language, is called Hiragana. It is the very basic script. Hiragana was made by modifying the Kanji letters. In the ancient times when Hiragana was made, many Japanese people did not accept it. The men used only Chinese characters in their writings. As the women were not allowed to receive the same level of education as that of men, the women started using hiragana first. Earlier for writing unofficial documents, only Hiragana was used. Whereas, for official documents both katakana and kanji were used. Hiragana is used for words, which do not have Kanji. It is also used as suffixes, prefixes and particles. As we cannot change kanji into different tenses, it is written in Hiragana at such times.
There are 46 basic Hiragana characters. It includes
* 1) 5 main vowels, which are ‘a’ pronounced as ‘aa’ as in ‘mark’ ‘i’ pronounced as ‘i’ as in ‘eat’ ‘u’ pronounced as ‘oo’ as in ‘soon’ ‘e’ pronounced as ‘e’ as in ‘tell’ ‘o’ pronounced as ‘o’ as in ‘more’
* 2) 39 consonants which are made by joining a vowel at the end of a character like "ka", "ki", "ku", "ke", "ko"
* 3) One single consonant "n"
* 4) An alphabet "wo" pronounced "o".
When "tenten or Maru" is added to, some of the main characters, new characters are formed. Tenten are two small lines written at the head of a consonant. Maru is a small circle written at the head of a consonant. For example, if tenten is added to "ka" becomes "ga" or "sa" become "za". In addition, if maru is added to "ha" it becomes "ba".
When either "ya", "yu" or "yo" character is written at the foot of any "I" ending character then they form the consonant clusters.
While writing hiragana, katakana or kanji, one needs to follow a particular stroke order. Stroke order is called as "Kakijun" in Japanese. It actually means the sequential steps to write a particular character. Also, while forming Japanese words by using hiragana script, there are a few rules one needs to follow. They are:-
* 1) Nasal sound: Words, which have a nasal sound it consists of the consonant ‘n’ as in "enpitsu", which means pencil.
* 2) Double consonants: When a small "tsu" is written in a word then the consonant after that is repeated twice as in "gakkou" which means school.
* 3) Long pronunciation: Whenever vowel "u" comes after any "o" ending character then the sound "o" is prolonged. Similarly, whenever "a", "i", "u", "e", "o" comes after any "a", "i", "u", "e", "o" ending character then also the respective sound is prolonged.
Following are the Hiragana charts to help you learn hiragana:-
Hiragana chart-1
hiragana
Hiragana chart-2
hiragana
Hiragana chart-3
hiragana
There are a few important things, which one should be very clear about and should always remember it. They are :-
* The "wo/ o" consonant is used only as a particle. It is not used in forming words.
* The consonants "ji" and "zu" come in two different series. The "ji" which occurs in the "Da" series is not at all used whereas the "Zu" is used very rarely. The "Ji" and "Zu" which occur in the "Za" series is always used in forming words.
Jumat, 14 Januari 2011
the social/situational orientation to learning
It is not so much that learners acquire structures or models to understand the world, but they participate in frameworks that that have structure. Learning involves participation in a community of practice.
Social learning theory 'posits that people learn from observing other people. By definition, such observations take place in a social setting' (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 134). Within psychology, initially it was behaviourists who looked to how people learned through observation. Later researchers like Albert Bandura looked to interaction and cognitive processes. One thing that observation does is to allow people to see the consequences of other’s behaviours. They can gain some idea of what might flow from acting in this way or that.
Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people ha d to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasion s this coded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura 1977: 22)
Attending to a behaviour; remembering it as a possible model or paradigm; and playing out how it may work for them in different situations (rehearsal) are key aspects of observational learning.
Symbols retained from a modelling experience act as a template with which one’s actions are compared. During this rehearsal process individuals observe their own behaviour and compare to their cognitive representation of modelled experience. (Hergenhahn 1988 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 135)
In this model behaviour results from the interaction of the individual with the environment.
A more radical model - situated learning - has been put forward by Lave and Wenger (1991). Rather than looking to learning as the acquisition of certain forms of knowledge, they have tried to place it in social relationships – situations of co-participation. As William F. Hanks puts it in his introduction to their book: ‘Rather than asking what kind of cognitive processes and conceptual structures are involved, they ask what kinds of social engagements provide the proper context for learning to take place’ (1991: 14). It not so much that learners acquire structures or models to understand the world, but they participate in frameworks that that have structure. Learning involves participation in a community of practice.
Lave and Wenger illustrate their theory on observations of different apprenticeships (Yucatec midwives, Vai and Gola tailors, US Navy quartermasters, meat-cutters, and non-drinking alcoholics in Alcoholics Anonymous). Initially people have to join communities and learn at the periphery. As they become more competent they move more to the ‘centre’ of the particular community. Learning is, thus, not seen as the acquisition of knowledge by individuals so much as a process of social participation. The nature of the situation impacts significantly on the process.
Learners inevitably participate in communities of practitioners and… the mastery of knowledge and skill requires newcomers to move toward full participation in the sociocultural practices of a community. "Legitimate peripheral participation" provides a way to speak about the relations between newcomers and old-timers, and about activities, identities, artefacts, and communities of knowledge and practice. A person’s intentions to learn are engaged and the meaning of learning is configured through the process of becoming a full participant in a sociocultural practice. This social process, includes, indeed it subsumes, the learning of knowledgeable skills. (Lave and Wenger 1991: 29)
In this there is a concern with identity, with learning to speak, act and improvise in ways that make sense in the community. What is more, and in contrast with learning as internalization, ‘learning as increasing participation in communities of practice concerns the whole person acting in the world’ (Lave and Wenger 1991: 49). The focus is on the ways in which learning is ‘an evolving, continuously renewed set of relations’ (ibid.: 50). In other words, this is a relational view of the person and learning.
As Tennant (1997: 77) argues, this orientation has the definite advantage of drawing attention to the need to understand knowledge and learning in context. However, situated learning depends on two claims:
* It makes no sense to talk of knowledge that is decontextualized, abstract or general.
* New knowledge and learning are properly conceived as being located in communities of practice (op cit.).
Questions can be raised about both of these claims. It may be that learning can occur that is seemingly unrelated to context or life situation. Second, there may situations where the community of practice is weak or exhibits power relationships that seriously inhibit entry and participation.
This said, the idea of situated learning does provide significant pointers for practice. Here I want to highlight three:
* Learning is in the relationships between people – As McDermott (in Murphy 1999:17) puts it:
Learning traditionally gets measured as on the assumption that it is a possession of individuals that can be found inside their heads… [Here] learning is in the relationships between people. Learning is in the conditions that bring people together and organize a point of contact that allows for particular pieces of information to take on a relevance; without the points of contact, without the system of relevancies, there is not learning, and there is little memory. Learning does not belong to individual persons, but to the various conversations of which they are a part.
* Educators work so that people can become participants in communities of practice – they need to explore with people in communities how all may participate to the full. There is a strong link here with the long-standing concern among informal educators for association.
* There is an intimate connection between knowledge and activity - Learning is part of daily living. Problem solving and learning from experience become central processes (although situtated learning is not the same as ‘learning by doing’ – see Tennant 1997: 73).
Other psychologists have looked beyond the focus on human interaction to the geography or terrain of learning. 'People appear to think in conjunction or partnership with others and with the help of culturally provided tools and implements' (Salomon 1993: xiii). In other words, there is a need to explore the extent to which learning (or intelligence) lies in the resources to which people have access. These might be obvious resources like libraries and internet access, but it can also involve the use of tools like pencils and pens. In this view, as Gardner (1999: 24) puts it, 'intelligence is better thought of as "distributed" in the world rather than "in the head"'. Some of those advocating the importance of distributed cognition place a stronger focus on distribution than others. They argue that while the individual is significant, psychological analysis should focus on the joint, socially mediated activity in a cultural context (see Salomon 1993: xv for a discusssion). Others, like Salomon and Gardner, argue that '"solo" and distributed cognitions are still distinguishable from each other and are taken to be in an interdependent dynamic interaction (ibid.: xvi).
See, also: · learning· the behaviourist orientation to learning · the cognitive orientation to learning · the humanistic orientation to learning · the social/situational orientation to learning
References
Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gardner, H. (1993) Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, New York: Basic Books.
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Murphy, P. (ed.) (1999) Learners, Learning and Assessment, London: Paul Chapman. See, also, Leach, J. and Moon, B. (eds.) (1999) Learners and Pedagogy, London: Paul Chapman. 280 + viii pages; and McCormick, R. and Paetcher, C. (eds.) (1999) Learning and Knowledge, London: Paul Chapman. 254 + xiv pages.
Ramsden, P. (1992) Learning to Teach in Higher Education, London: Routledge.
Salomon, G. (ed.) (1993) Distributed Cognitions. Psychological and educational considerations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.
Tennant, M. and Pogson, P. (1995) Learning and Change in the Adult Years. A developmental perspective, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wenger, E. (1999) Communities of Practice. Learning, meaning and identity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The social/situational orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-social.htm, Last update: September 03, 2009.
Social learning theory 'posits that people learn from observing other people. By definition, such observations take place in a social setting' (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 134). Within psychology, initially it was behaviourists who looked to how people learned through observation. Later researchers like Albert Bandura looked to interaction and cognitive processes. One thing that observation does is to allow people to see the consequences of other’s behaviours. They can gain some idea of what might flow from acting in this way or that.
Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people ha d to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasion s this coded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura 1977: 22)
Attending to a behaviour; remembering it as a possible model or paradigm; and playing out how it may work for them in different situations (rehearsal) are key aspects of observational learning.
Symbols retained from a modelling experience act as a template with which one’s actions are compared. During this rehearsal process individuals observe their own behaviour and compare to their cognitive representation of modelled experience. (Hergenhahn 1988 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 135)
In this model behaviour results from the interaction of the individual with the environment.
A more radical model - situated learning - has been put forward by Lave and Wenger (1991). Rather than looking to learning as the acquisition of certain forms of knowledge, they have tried to place it in social relationships – situations of co-participation. As William F. Hanks puts it in his introduction to their book: ‘Rather than asking what kind of cognitive processes and conceptual structures are involved, they ask what kinds of social engagements provide the proper context for learning to take place’ (1991: 14). It not so much that learners acquire structures or models to understand the world, but they participate in frameworks that that have structure. Learning involves participation in a community of practice.
Lave and Wenger illustrate their theory on observations of different apprenticeships (Yucatec midwives, Vai and Gola tailors, US Navy quartermasters, meat-cutters, and non-drinking alcoholics in Alcoholics Anonymous). Initially people have to join communities and learn at the periphery. As they become more competent they move more to the ‘centre’ of the particular community. Learning is, thus, not seen as the acquisition of knowledge by individuals so much as a process of social participation. The nature of the situation impacts significantly on the process.
Learners inevitably participate in communities of practitioners and… the mastery of knowledge and skill requires newcomers to move toward full participation in the sociocultural practices of a community. "Legitimate peripheral participation" provides a way to speak about the relations between newcomers and old-timers, and about activities, identities, artefacts, and communities of knowledge and practice. A person’s intentions to learn are engaged and the meaning of learning is configured through the process of becoming a full participant in a sociocultural practice. This social process, includes, indeed it subsumes, the learning of knowledgeable skills. (Lave and Wenger 1991: 29)
In this there is a concern with identity, with learning to speak, act and improvise in ways that make sense in the community. What is more, and in contrast with learning as internalization, ‘learning as increasing participation in communities of practice concerns the whole person acting in the world’ (Lave and Wenger 1991: 49). The focus is on the ways in which learning is ‘an evolving, continuously renewed set of relations’ (ibid.: 50). In other words, this is a relational view of the person and learning.
As Tennant (1997: 77) argues, this orientation has the definite advantage of drawing attention to the need to understand knowledge and learning in context. However, situated learning depends on two claims:
* It makes no sense to talk of knowledge that is decontextualized, abstract or general.
* New knowledge and learning are properly conceived as being located in communities of practice (op cit.).
Questions can be raised about both of these claims. It may be that learning can occur that is seemingly unrelated to context or life situation. Second, there may situations where the community of practice is weak or exhibits power relationships that seriously inhibit entry and participation.
This said, the idea of situated learning does provide significant pointers for practice. Here I want to highlight three:
* Learning is in the relationships between people – As McDermott (in Murphy 1999:17) puts it:
Learning traditionally gets measured as on the assumption that it is a possession of individuals that can be found inside their heads… [Here] learning is in the relationships between people. Learning is in the conditions that bring people together and organize a point of contact that allows for particular pieces of information to take on a relevance; without the points of contact, without the system of relevancies, there is not learning, and there is little memory. Learning does not belong to individual persons, but to the various conversations of which they are a part.
* Educators work so that people can become participants in communities of practice – they need to explore with people in communities how all may participate to the full. There is a strong link here with the long-standing concern among informal educators for association.
* There is an intimate connection between knowledge and activity - Learning is part of daily living. Problem solving and learning from experience become central processes (although situtated learning is not the same as ‘learning by doing’ – see Tennant 1997: 73).
Other psychologists have looked beyond the focus on human interaction to the geography or terrain of learning. 'People appear to think in conjunction or partnership with others and with the help of culturally provided tools and implements' (Salomon 1993: xiii). In other words, there is a need to explore the extent to which learning (or intelligence) lies in the resources to which people have access. These might be obvious resources like libraries and internet access, but it can also involve the use of tools like pencils and pens. In this view, as Gardner (1999: 24) puts it, 'intelligence is better thought of as "distributed" in the world rather than "in the head"'. Some of those advocating the importance of distributed cognition place a stronger focus on distribution than others. They argue that while the individual is significant, psychological analysis should focus on the joint, socially mediated activity in a cultural context (see Salomon 1993: xv for a discusssion). Others, like Salomon and Gardner, argue that '"solo" and distributed cognitions are still distinguishable from each other and are taken to be in an interdependent dynamic interaction (ibid.: xvi).
See, also: · learning· the behaviourist orientation to learning · the cognitive orientation to learning · the humanistic orientation to learning · the social/situational orientation to learning
References
Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gardner, H. (1993) Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, New York: Basic Books.
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Murphy, P. (ed.) (1999) Learners, Learning and Assessment, London: Paul Chapman. See, also, Leach, J. and Moon, B. (eds.) (1999) Learners and Pedagogy, London: Paul Chapman. 280 + viii pages; and McCormick, R. and Paetcher, C. (eds.) (1999) Learning and Knowledge, London: Paul Chapman. 254 + xiv pages.
Ramsden, P. (1992) Learning to Teach in Higher Education, London: Routledge.
Salomon, G. (ed.) (1993) Distributed Cognitions. Psychological and educational considerations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.
Tennant, M. and Pogson, P. (1995) Learning and Change in the Adult Years. A developmental perspective, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wenger, E. (1999) Communities of Practice. Learning, meaning and identity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The social/situational orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-social.htm, Last update: September 03, 2009.
learning theory
learning theory
What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a process? Here we survey some common models.
contents: introduction · learning as a product · task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious or formalized learning ·learning as a process · the behaviourist orientation to learning · the cognitive orientation to learning · the humanistic orientation to learning · the social/situational orientation to learning · further reading · how to cite this article
picture - carl rogers public domain - wikipedia commonsI want to talk about learning. But not the lifeless, sterile, futile, quickly forgotten stuff that is crammed in to the mind of the poor helpless individual tied into his seat by ironclad bonds of conformity! I am talking about LEARNING - the insatiable curiosity that drives the adolescent boy to absorb everything he can see or hear or read about gasoline engines in order to improve the efficiency and speed of his 'cruiser'. I am talking about the student who says, "I am discovering, drawing in from the outside, and making that which is drawn in a real part of me." I am talking about any learning in which the experience of the learner progresses along this line: "No, no, that's not what I want"; "Wait! This is closer to what I am interested in, what I need"; "Ah, here it is! Now I'm grasping and comprehending what I need and what I want to know!" Carl Rogers 1983: 18-19
For all the talk of learning amongst educational policymakers and practitioners, there is a surprising lack of attention to what it entails. In Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, theories of learning do not figure strongly in professional education programmes for teachers and those within different arenas of informal education. It is almost as if it is something is unproblematic and that can be taken for granted. Get the instructional regime right, the message seems to be, and learning (as measured by tests and assessment regimes) will follow. This lack of attention to the nature of learning inevitably leads to an impoverishment of education. It isn't simply that the process is less effective as a result, but what passes for education can actually diminish well-being.
Here we begin by examining learning as a product and as a process. The latter takes us into the arena of competing learning theories - ideas about how learning may happen. We also look at Alan Roger's (2003) helpful discussion of task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious or formalized learning.
Learning as a product
Pick up a standard psychology textbook - especially from the 1960s and 1970s and you will probably find learning defined as a change in behaviour. In other words, learning is approached as an outcome - the end product of some process. It can be recognized or seen. This approach has the virtue of highlighting a crucial aspect of learning - change. It's apparent clarity may also make some sense when conducting experiments. However, it is rather a blunt instrument. For example:
* Does a person need to perform in order for learning to have happened?
* Are there other factors that may cause behaviour to change?
* Can the change involved include the potential for change? (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124)
Questions such as these have led to qualification. Some have looked to identifying relatively permanent changes in behaviour (or potential for change) as a result of experiences (see behaviourism below). However, not all changes in behaviour resulting from experience involve learning. It would seem fair to expect that if we are to say that learning has taken place, experience should have been used in some way. Conditioning may result in a change in behaviour, but the change may not involved drawing upon experience to generate new knowledge. Not surprisingly, many theorists have, thus, been less concerned with overt behaviour but with changes in the ways in which people 'understand, or experience, or conceptualize the world around them' (Ramsden 1992: 4) (see cognitivism below). The focus for them, is gaining knowledge or ability through the use of experience.
The depth or nature of the changes involved are likely to be different. Some years ago Säljö (1979) carried out a simple, but very useful piece of research. He asked a number of adult students what they understood by learning. Their responses fell into five main categories:
1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring information or ‘knowing a lot’.
2. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing information that can be reproduced.
3. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods that can be retained and used as necessary.
4. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other and to the real world.
5. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting knowledge. (quoted in Ramsden 1992: 26)
As Paul Ramsden comments, we can see immediately that conceptions 4 and 5 in are qualitatively different from the first three. Conceptions 1 to 3 imply a less complex view of learning. Learning is something external to the learner. It may even be something that just happens or is done to you by teachers (as in conception 1). In a way learning becomes a bit like shopping. People go out and buy knowledge - it becomes their possession. The last two conceptions look to the 'internal' or personal aspect of learning. Learning is seen as something that you do in order to understand the real world.
'knowing that' and 'knowing how'
A man knowing little or nothing of medical science could not be a good surgeon, but excellence at surgery is not the same thing as knowledge of medical science; not is it a simple product of it. The surgeon must indeed have learned from instruction, or by his own inductions and observations, a great number of truths; but he must also have learned by practice a great number of aptitudes. (Ryle 1949: 48-49)
Learning how or improving an ability is not like learning that or acquiring information. Truths can be imparted, procedures can only be inculcated, and while inculcation is a gradual process, imparting is relatively sudden. It makes sense to ask at what moment someone became apprised of a truth, but not to ask at what moment someone acquired a skill. (Ryle 1949: 58)
In some ways the difference here involves what Gilbert Ryle (1949) has termed 'knowing that' and 'knowing how'. The first two categories mostly involve 'knowing that'. As we move through the third we see that alongside 'knowing that' there is growing emphasis on 'knowing how'. This system of categories is hierarchical - each higher conception implies all the rest beneath it. 'In other words, students who conceive of learning as understanding reality are also able to see it as increasing their knowledge' (Ramsden 1992: 27).
Learning as a process - task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning
In the five categories that Säljö identified we can see learning appearing as a process - there is a concern with what happens when the learning takes place. In this way, learning could be thought of as 'a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience' (Maples and Webster 1980 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124). One of the significant questions that arises is the extent to which people are conscious of what is going on. Are they aware that they are engaged in learning - and what significance does it have if they are? Such questions have appeared in various guises over the years - and have surfaced, for example, in debates around the rather confusing notion of 'informal learning'.
One particularly helpful way of approaching the area has been formulated by Alan Rogers (2003). Drawing especially on the work of those who study the learning of language (for example, Krashen 1982), Rogers sets out two contrasting approaches: task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning.
Task-conscious or acquisition learning. Acquisition learning is seen as going on all the time. It is 'concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; it is not concerned with general principles' (Rogers 2003: 18). Examples include much of the learning involved in parenting or with running a home. Some have referred to this kind of learning as unconscious or implicit. Rogers (2003: 21), however, suggests that it might be better to speak of it as having a consciousness of the task. In other words, whilst the learner may not be conscious of learning, they are usually aware of the specific task in hand.
Learning-conscious or formalized learning. Formalized learning arises from the process of facilitating learning. It is 'educative learning' rather than the accumulation of experience. To this extent there is a consciousness of learning - people are aware that the task they are engaged in entails learning. 'Learning itself is the task. What formalized learning does is to make learning more conscious in order to enhance it' (Rogers 2003: 27). It involves guided episodes of learning.
When approached in this way it becomes clear that these contrasting ways of learning can appear in the same context. Both are present in schools. Both are present in families. It is possible to think of the mix of acquisition and formalized learning as forming a continuum.
At one extreme lie those unintentional and usually accidental learning events which occur continuously as we walk through life. Next comes incidental learning - unconscious learning through acquisition methods which occurs in the course of some other activity... Then there are various activities in which we are somewhat more more conscious of learning, experiential activities arising from immediate life-related concerns, though even here the focus is still on the task... Then come more purposeful activities - occasions where we set out to learn something in a more systematic way, using whatever comes to hand for that purpose, but often deliberately disregarding engagement with teachers and formal institutions of learning... Further along the continuum lie the self-directed learning projects on which there is so much literature... More formalized and generalized (and consequently less contextualized) forms of learning are the distance and open education programmes, where some elements of acquisition learning are often built into the designed learning programme. Towards the further extreme lie more formalized learning programmes of highly decontextualized learning, using material common to all the learners without paying any regard to their individual preferences, agendas or needs. There are of course no clear boundaries between each of these categories. (Rogers 2003: 41-2)
This distinction is echoed in different ways in the writings of many of those concerned with education - but in particular in key theorists such as Kurt Lewin, Chris Argyris, Donald Schön, or Michael Polanyi.
What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a process? Here we survey some common models.
contents: introduction · learning as a product · task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious or formalized learning ·learning as a process · the behaviourist orientation to learning · the cognitive orientation to learning · the humanistic orientation to learning · the social/situational orientation to learning · further reading · how to cite this article
picture - carl rogers public domain - wikipedia commonsI want to talk about learning. But not the lifeless, sterile, futile, quickly forgotten stuff that is crammed in to the mind of the poor helpless individual tied into his seat by ironclad bonds of conformity! I am talking about LEARNING - the insatiable curiosity that drives the adolescent boy to absorb everything he can see or hear or read about gasoline engines in order to improve the efficiency and speed of his 'cruiser'. I am talking about the student who says, "I am discovering, drawing in from the outside, and making that which is drawn in a real part of me." I am talking about any learning in which the experience of the learner progresses along this line: "No, no, that's not what I want"; "Wait! This is closer to what I am interested in, what I need"; "Ah, here it is! Now I'm grasping and comprehending what I need and what I want to know!" Carl Rogers 1983: 18-19
For all the talk of learning amongst educational policymakers and practitioners, there is a surprising lack of attention to what it entails. In Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, theories of learning do not figure strongly in professional education programmes for teachers and those within different arenas of informal education. It is almost as if it is something is unproblematic and that can be taken for granted. Get the instructional regime right, the message seems to be, and learning (as measured by tests and assessment regimes) will follow. This lack of attention to the nature of learning inevitably leads to an impoverishment of education. It isn't simply that the process is less effective as a result, but what passes for education can actually diminish well-being.
Here we begin by examining learning as a product and as a process. The latter takes us into the arena of competing learning theories - ideas about how learning may happen. We also look at Alan Roger's (2003) helpful discussion of task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious or formalized learning.
Learning as a product
Pick up a standard psychology textbook - especially from the 1960s and 1970s and you will probably find learning defined as a change in behaviour. In other words, learning is approached as an outcome - the end product of some process. It can be recognized or seen. This approach has the virtue of highlighting a crucial aspect of learning - change. It's apparent clarity may also make some sense when conducting experiments. However, it is rather a blunt instrument. For example:
* Does a person need to perform in order for learning to have happened?
* Are there other factors that may cause behaviour to change?
* Can the change involved include the potential for change? (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124)
Questions such as these have led to qualification. Some have looked to identifying relatively permanent changes in behaviour (or potential for change) as a result of experiences (see behaviourism below). However, not all changes in behaviour resulting from experience involve learning. It would seem fair to expect that if we are to say that learning has taken place, experience should have been used in some way. Conditioning may result in a change in behaviour, but the change may not involved drawing upon experience to generate new knowledge. Not surprisingly, many theorists have, thus, been less concerned with overt behaviour but with changes in the ways in which people 'understand, or experience, or conceptualize the world around them' (Ramsden 1992: 4) (see cognitivism below). The focus for them, is gaining knowledge or ability through the use of experience.
The depth or nature of the changes involved are likely to be different. Some years ago Säljö (1979) carried out a simple, but very useful piece of research. He asked a number of adult students what they understood by learning. Their responses fell into five main categories:
1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring information or ‘knowing a lot’.
2. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing information that can be reproduced.
3. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods that can be retained and used as necessary.
4. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other and to the real world.
5. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting knowledge. (quoted in Ramsden 1992: 26)
As Paul Ramsden comments, we can see immediately that conceptions 4 and 5 in are qualitatively different from the first three. Conceptions 1 to 3 imply a less complex view of learning. Learning is something external to the learner. It may even be something that just happens or is done to you by teachers (as in conception 1). In a way learning becomes a bit like shopping. People go out and buy knowledge - it becomes their possession. The last two conceptions look to the 'internal' or personal aspect of learning. Learning is seen as something that you do in order to understand the real world.
'knowing that' and 'knowing how'
A man knowing little or nothing of medical science could not be a good surgeon, but excellence at surgery is not the same thing as knowledge of medical science; not is it a simple product of it. The surgeon must indeed have learned from instruction, or by his own inductions and observations, a great number of truths; but he must also have learned by practice a great number of aptitudes. (Ryle 1949: 48-49)
Learning how or improving an ability is not like learning that or acquiring information. Truths can be imparted, procedures can only be inculcated, and while inculcation is a gradual process, imparting is relatively sudden. It makes sense to ask at what moment someone became apprised of a truth, but not to ask at what moment someone acquired a skill. (Ryle 1949: 58)
In some ways the difference here involves what Gilbert Ryle (1949) has termed 'knowing that' and 'knowing how'. The first two categories mostly involve 'knowing that'. As we move through the third we see that alongside 'knowing that' there is growing emphasis on 'knowing how'. This system of categories is hierarchical - each higher conception implies all the rest beneath it. 'In other words, students who conceive of learning as understanding reality are also able to see it as increasing their knowledge' (Ramsden 1992: 27).
Learning as a process - task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning
In the five categories that Säljö identified we can see learning appearing as a process - there is a concern with what happens when the learning takes place. In this way, learning could be thought of as 'a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience' (Maples and Webster 1980 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124). One of the significant questions that arises is the extent to which people are conscious of what is going on. Are they aware that they are engaged in learning - and what significance does it have if they are? Such questions have appeared in various guises over the years - and have surfaced, for example, in debates around the rather confusing notion of 'informal learning'.
One particularly helpful way of approaching the area has been formulated by Alan Rogers (2003). Drawing especially on the work of those who study the learning of language (for example, Krashen 1982), Rogers sets out two contrasting approaches: task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning.
Task-conscious or acquisition learning. Acquisition learning is seen as going on all the time. It is 'concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; it is not concerned with general principles' (Rogers 2003: 18). Examples include much of the learning involved in parenting or with running a home. Some have referred to this kind of learning as unconscious or implicit. Rogers (2003: 21), however, suggests that it might be better to speak of it as having a consciousness of the task. In other words, whilst the learner may not be conscious of learning, they are usually aware of the specific task in hand.
Learning-conscious or formalized learning. Formalized learning arises from the process of facilitating learning. It is 'educative learning' rather than the accumulation of experience. To this extent there is a consciousness of learning - people are aware that the task they are engaged in entails learning. 'Learning itself is the task. What formalized learning does is to make learning more conscious in order to enhance it' (Rogers 2003: 27). It involves guided episodes of learning.
When approached in this way it becomes clear that these contrasting ways of learning can appear in the same context. Both are present in schools. Both are present in families. It is possible to think of the mix of acquisition and formalized learning as forming a continuum.
At one extreme lie those unintentional and usually accidental learning events which occur continuously as we walk through life. Next comes incidental learning - unconscious learning through acquisition methods which occurs in the course of some other activity... Then there are various activities in which we are somewhat more more conscious of learning, experiential activities arising from immediate life-related concerns, though even here the focus is still on the task... Then come more purposeful activities - occasions where we set out to learn something in a more systematic way, using whatever comes to hand for that purpose, but often deliberately disregarding engagement with teachers and formal institutions of learning... Further along the continuum lie the self-directed learning projects on which there is so much literature... More formalized and generalized (and consequently less contextualized) forms of learning are the distance and open education programmes, where some elements of acquisition learning are often built into the designed learning programme. Towards the further extreme lie more formalized learning programmes of highly decontextualized learning, using material common to all the learners without paying any regard to their individual preferences, agendas or needs. There are of course no clear boundaries between each of these categories. (Rogers 2003: 41-2)
This distinction is echoed in different ways in the writings of many of those concerned with education - but in particular in key theorists such as Kurt Lewin, Chris Argyris, Donald Schön, or Michael Polanyi.
Senin, 10 Januari 2011
Jumat, 07 Januari 2011
kalimat tanya bahasa jepang
Kalimat Tanya Bahasa Jepang
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat tanya dalam Bahasa Jepang. Untuk membuat kalimat tanya Bahasa Jepang sungguh mudah, yaitu dengan menambahkan partikel ka setelah kalimat pernyataan. Untuk lebih jelas silakan perhatikan contoh berikut ini:
Kalimat Tanya
Apakah anda ____. : Anata wa ____ san desu ka.
あなたは＿＿さんですか。
Apakah anda Dea? : Anata wa Dea san desu ka.
あなたはデアさんですか。
Iya, benar. : Hai, soo desu.
はい、そうです。
Bukan. : Iie, chigaimasu.
いいえ、ちがいます。
Iya, saya Dea. : Hai, watashi wa Dea desu
はい、わたしはデアです。
Contoh Lain:
• Ano hito wa Dea san desu ka.
あのひとはデアさんですか。 : Apakah orang itu Dea?
• Kanojo wa isha desu ka.
かのじょはいしゃですか。 : Apakah Dia dokter?
• Kare wa Amerika-jin desu ka.
かれはアメリカじんですか。 : Apakah dia orang Amerika?
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat tanya dalam Bahasa Jepang. Untuk membuat kalimat tanya Bahasa Jepang sungguh mudah, yaitu dengan menambahkan partikel ka setelah kalimat pernyataan. Untuk lebih jelas silakan perhatikan contoh berikut ini:
Kalimat Tanya
Apakah anda ____. : Anata wa ____ san desu ka.
あなたは＿＿さんですか。
Apakah anda Dea? : Anata wa Dea san desu ka.
あなたはデアさんですか。
Iya, benar. : Hai, soo desu.
はい、そうです。
Bukan. : Iie, chigaimasu.
いいえ、ちがいます。
Iya, saya Dea. : Hai, watashi wa Dea desu
はい、わたしはデアです。
Contoh Lain:
• Ano hito wa Dea san desu ka.
あのひとはデアさんですか。 : Apakah orang itu Dea?
• Kanojo wa isha desu ka.
かのじょはいしゃですか。 : Apakah Dia dokter?
• Kare wa Amerika-jin desu ka.
かれはアメリカじんですか。 : Apakah dia orang Amerika?
kalimat positiv sederhana bahasa jepang
Kalimat Positif Sederhana
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat sederhana (positif) dalam bahasa Jepang. Pola yang digunakan untuk membuat kalimat tersebut adalah, "KB1 wa KB2 desu" Untuk lebih jelas silakan anda simak beberapa contoh berikut ini:
Contoh Kalimat:
Saya ____. : Watashi wa _____desu.
わたしは＿＿です。
Saya Arif. : Watashi wa Arif desu.
わたしはアリフです。
Saya Yamada. : Watashi wa Yamada desu.
わたしはやまだです。
Orang ___. : ___ jin desu.
＿＿じんです。
Saya orang Indonesia. : Watashi wa Indonesia-jin desu.
わたしはインドネシアじんです。
Yamada orang Jepang. : Yamada san wa Nihon-jin desu.
やまださんはにほんじんです。
Penjelasan:
• Partikel “wa” tidak mempunyai arti dalam bahasa Indonesia namun berfungsi sebagai penanda subjek, artinya kata sebelum wa merupakan topik yang dibicarakan.
• Sementara desu menjadi penanda berakhirnya kalimat. Desu selalu ada pada kalimat formal, dan memberi nuansa "santun" pada kalimat. Desu juga tidak dapat diartikan dalam bahasa Indonesia.
Contoh Lain:
• Ano hito wa Dea san desu.
あのひとはデアさんです。 Orang itu Dea.
• Dea san wa daigakusei desu.
デアさんはだいがくせいです。 Dea (seorang) mahasiswa.
• Brian san wa Kanada-jin desu.
ブリアンさんはカナダじんです。 Brian orang Kanada.
Kosakata:
• Watashi わたし Saya
• ~Jin ~じん Orang ~
• Indonesia-jin インドネシアじん Orang Indonesia
• Ano hito あの人 Orang itu
• ~ san ~さん Pak, Bu, Mas, Mba dll
• Daigakusei だいがくせい Mahasiswa
• Nihon にほん Jepang
• Kanada カナダ Kanada
Kalimat Tanya Bahasa Jepang
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat tanya dalam Bahasa Jepang. Untuk membuat kalimat tanya Bahasa Jepang sungguh mudah, yaitu dengan menambahkan partikel ka setelah kalimat pernyataan. Untuk lebih jelas silakan perhatikan contoh berikut ini:
Kalimat Tanya
Apakah anda ____. : Anata wa ____ san desu ka.
あなたは＿＿さんですか。
Apakah anda Dea? : Anata wa Dea san desu ka.
あなたはデアさんですか。
Iya, benar. : Hai, soo desu.
はい、そうです。
Bukan. : Iie, chigaimasu.
いいえ、ちがいます。
Iya, saya Dea. : Hai, watashi wa Dea desu
はい、わたしはデアです。
Contoh Lain:
• Ano hito wa Dea san desu ka.
あのひとはデアさんですか。 : Apakah orang itu Dea?
• Kanojo wa isha desu ka.
かのじょはいしゃですか。 : Apakah Dia dokter?
• Kare wa Amerika-jin desu ka.
かれはアメリカじんですか。 : Apakah dia orang Amerika?
Kosakata
• Soo そう Begitu
• Hai, soo desu はい、そうです Iya, benar
• Chigaimasu ちがいます Tidak, salah
• Kanojo かのじょ Dia (p)
• Kare かれ Dia (l)
• Isha いしゃ Dokter
• Amerika アメリカ Amerika
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat sederhana (positif) dalam bahasa Jepang. Pola yang digunakan untuk membuat kalimat tersebut adalah, "KB1 wa KB2 desu" Untuk lebih jelas silakan anda simak beberapa contoh berikut ini:
Contoh Kalimat:
Saya ____. : Watashi wa _____desu.
わたしは＿＿です。
Saya Arif. : Watashi wa Arif desu.
わたしはアリフです。
Saya Yamada. : Watashi wa Yamada desu.
わたしはやまだです。
Orang ___. : ___ jin desu.
＿＿じんです。
Saya orang Indonesia. : Watashi wa Indonesia-jin desu.
わたしはインドネシアじんです。
Yamada orang Jepang. : Yamada san wa Nihon-jin desu.
やまださんはにほんじんです。
Penjelasan:
• Partikel “wa” tidak mempunyai arti dalam bahasa Indonesia namun berfungsi sebagai penanda subjek, artinya kata sebelum wa merupakan topik yang dibicarakan.
• Sementara desu menjadi penanda berakhirnya kalimat. Desu selalu ada pada kalimat formal, dan memberi nuansa "santun" pada kalimat. Desu juga tidak dapat diartikan dalam bahasa Indonesia.
Contoh Lain:
• Ano hito wa Dea san desu.
あのひとはデアさんです。 Orang itu Dea.
• Dea san wa daigakusei desu.
デアさんはだいがくせいです。 Dea (seorang) mahasiswa.
• Brian san wa Kanada-jin desu.
ブリアンさんはカナダじんです。 Brian orang Kanada.
Kosakata:
• Watashi わたし Saya
• ~Jin ~じん Orang ~
• Indonesia-jin インドネシアじん Orang Indonesia
• Ano hito あの人 Orang itu
• ~ san ~さん Pak, Bu, Mas, Mba dll
• Daigakusei だいがくせい Mahasiswa
• Nihon にほん Jepang
• Kanada カナダ Kanada
Kalimat Tanya Bahasa Jepang
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat tanya dalam Bahasa Jepang. Untuk membuat kalimat tanya Bahasa Jepang sungguh mudah, yaitu dengan menambahkan partikel ka setelah kalimat pernyataan. Untuk lebih jelas silakan perhatikan contoh berikut ini:
Kalimat Tanya
Apakah anda ____. : Anata wa ____ san desu ka.
あなたは＿＿さんですか。
Apakah anda Dea? : Anata wa Dea san desu ka.
あなたはデアさんですか。
Iya, benar. : Hai, soo desu.
はい、そうです。
Bukan. : Iie, chigaimasu.
いいえ、ちがいます。
Iya, saya Dea. : Hai, watashi wa Dea desu
はい、わたしはデアです。
Contoh Lain:
• Ano hito wa Dea san desu ka.
あのひとはデアさんですか。 : Apakah orang itu Dea?
• Kanojo wa isha desu ka.
かのじょはいしゃですか。 : Apakah Dia dokter?
• Kare wa Amerika-jin desu ka.
かれはアメリカじんですか。 : Apakah dia orang Amerika?
Kosakata
• Soo そう Begitu
• Hai, soo desu はい、そうです Iya, benar
• Chigaimasu ちがいます Tidak, salah
• Kanojo かのじょ Dia (p)
• Kare かれ Dia (l)
• Isha いしゃ Dokter
• Amerika アメリカ Amerika
kata sambung dalam bahasa jepang atau setsuzokushi
Mari belajar bahasa Jepang lagi ^_^, sumber dari blognya ulan jangan lupa berkunjung ke sana juga ya, soalnya disana info bahasa Jepangnya banyak hehe
A. Arti dan Fungsi Setsuzokushi
Dalam Bahasa Indonesia konjungsi sering disebut juga kata sambung. Si kata sambung ini dalam Bahasa Jepang disebut dengan setsuzokushi. Nagayama Isami secara singkat menjelaskan bahwa yang dimaksud setsuzokushi ialah kelas kata yang dipakai untuk menghubungkan atau merangkaikan kalimat dengan kalimat atau merangkaikan bagian-bagian kalimat [Isami, 1986: 157]. Fungsi setsuzokushi [konjungsi] yatu:
1. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk merangkaikan, menjajarkan atau mengumpulkan beberapa kata. Setsuzokushi dipakai di antara kata-kata itu.
a. Borupen matawa manenhitsu de kakinasai!
b. Eigo narabini suugaku wo benkyou shinasai!
c. Yuka-san, Emiko-san oyobi Akemi-san ga daihyou toshite dekakemasu.
2. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk menggabungkan dua klausa atau lebih dalam suatu kalimat, menghubungkan induk kalimat dengan anak kalimat. Setsuzokushi diapit oleh bagian-bagian kalimat yang digabungkan itu.
a. Kare wa seijika de, shikamo, bungakusha data.
b. Benkyou mo suru shi, mata, undou mo suru.
c. Tasuke wo motometa ga, shikashi dare mo konakatta.
3. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk menggabungkan dua kalimat, menyatakan bahwa kalimat yang disebutkan mula-mula berhubungan dengan kalimat yang disebutkan berikutnya. Setsuzokushi diletakkan setelah titik pada kalimat pertama.
a. Kaze wa yanda. Daga, ame wa furitsuzuiteru.
b. Eiga wo mi ni ikou ka. Soretomo, ongaku wo kiki ni ikou ka?
c. Kare wa atama ga ii. Shikashi, undou ga dame desu.
Setsuzokushi tidak mengenal konjugasi atau deklinasi, termasuk kelas kata yang berdiri sendiri [jiritsugo] dan tidak mempunyai dukungan sintaksis dengan bentuk lain, tidak dapat diatur atau dihubung-hubungkan dengan kata lain dan tidak dapat membentuk kalimat tanpa sokongan kata lain. Setsuzokushi hanya berfungsi menghubungkan beberapa kata, menghubungkan dua klausa atau lebih atau menghubungkan bagian-bagian kalimat, menggabungkan kalimat dengan kalimat. Setsuzokushi tidak dapat menjadi subjek, objek, predikat atau pun adverbia.
B. Jenis-jenis Setsuzokushi
Ada beberapa pendapat mengenai setsuzokushi ini. Ada yang membaginya menjadi lima jenis dan ada juga yang membaginya menjadi tujuh jenis. Seperti Uehara Takeshi dalam buku Shinshu Kaimei Kokubunpo, Terada Takanao dalam buku Chugakusei No Kakubunpou dan Hirai Masao dalam buku Nandemo Wakaru Shinkokugo Handobukku membagi setsuzokushi menjadi 7 jenis yakni: heiritsu, sentaku, tenka, gyakusetsu, joken, tenkan dan setsumei.
Baik Nagayama Isami maupun Murakami Motojiro tampaknya mengelompokkan jenis setsuzokushi [konjungsi] jouken, tenkan dan setsumei [yang dikemukakan oleh Uehara Takeshi, Terada Takanao dan Hirai Masao] menjadi jenis junsetsu. Pada bagian ini akan dibahas semua jenis setsuzokushi yang telah dikemukakan di atas.
1. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan yang setara [heiritsu no setsuzokushi].
Setsuzokushi yang dipakai untuk menyatakan hubungan setara di antaranya: oyobi [dan, serta, lagi], narabini [dan, lagipula, serta, begitu pula], mata [dan, lagi, juga, selanjutnya].
Setsuzokushi-setsuzokushiseperti ini berfungsi untuk merangkaikan, menjajarkan atau mengumpulkan beberapa kata atau kalimat yang setara sehingga menjadi satu kesatuan kalimat yang lebih besar.
a. Ji wo kaki, mata hon wo yomu.
b. Pochi wa utsukushiku, mata kashikoi inu desu.
c. Eigo narabini suugaku o benkyou shinasai!
d. Yuka-san, Emiko-san, oyobi Akemi-san ga daihyou toshite dekakemesu.
2. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan pilihan [sentaku no setsuzokushi]
Jenis setsuzokushi ini berfungsi menyatakan pilihan di antara kata-kata yang disebutkan sebelumnya dengan kata-kata yang disebutkan kemudian. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan pilihan ini antara lain: aruiwa [atau, atau pun, boleh jadi, mungkin, barangkali, kalau tidak], soretomo [atau, kalau tidak], matawa [atau], moshikuwa [atau, atau pun] dan sebagainya.
a. Okashi ga ii ka, soretomo, kudamono ga ii ka?
b. Denwa matawa denpou de oshirase shimasu.
c. Furansu-go aruiwa doitsu-go o benkyou shitai to omotteru.
d. Tegami moshikuwa denwa de gohenji itashimasu.
3. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan tambahan [tenki no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi yang dipakai untuk menyatakan hubungan tambahan ini di antaranya kata-kata omake ni [tambahan, sebagai tambahan, selain itu, lagipula], shikamo [lagipula, dan, juga, selanjutnya tambahan], soshite/soushite [lalu, dan lagi, selanjutnya], sonoue [di samping itu, selain itu, lagipula, tambahan pula], sorekara [lalu, sesudah itu, maka, selanjutnya], sore ni [lagipula, selain itu, tambahan], nao [lagi, lagipula, selanjutnya dan lagi, demikian juga], mata [lagi, dan juga, selanjutnya tambahan, yang lain]. Setsuzokushi kelompok ini berfungsi menyatakan bahwa tindakan pertama diikuti tindakan berikutnya, benda/keadaan yang pertama diikuti benda/keadaan yang pertama diikuti benda/keadaan berikutnya. Penjelasan yang disebutkan kemudian memperkuat penjelasan yang disebutkan sebelumnya.
a. Kare wa Eigo ga dekita, shikamo nihongo mo dekiru.
b. Yama ni mo itta shi, soshite umi ni mo itta.
c. Ame mo hidokatta ga, sonoue kaze mo hidokatta.
4. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan yang berlawanan [gyakusetsu no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi yang dipakai untuk menyatakan hubungan yang berlawanan ialah: ga [[tapi, tetapi, namun], kedo/keredo/kedomo/keredomo [tapi, tetapi, akan tetapi, meskipun, walaupun], shikashi [tetapi, walaupun demikian, namun] soredemo [walaupun begitu, walaupun demikian, tetapi], tadashi [tetapi, tapi], daga/desu ga [tetapi, akan tetapi, walaupun demikian], dakedo/dakeredo/desukedo/desukeredo/desukeredomo/dakeredomo [walaupun demikian, tapi, tetapi], datte [tetapi], demo [walaupun begitu, biarpun, tetapi, akan tetapi], tokoroga [tetapi, sebaliknya, padahal, melainkan], dan sebagainya. Setsuzokushi yang termasuk kelompok ini berfungsi untuk merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dan menyatakan bahwa pernyataan yang disebutkan pertama berlawanan dengan pernyataan yang disebutkan kemudian.
a. Atama no ii gakusei da. Shikashi, kesseki ga ooi.
b. Kinou depaato e ikimashita. Tokoroga, depaato ga yasumi deshita.
c. Haru ga kita. Daga, mada kaze wa tsumetai.
5. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan sebab-akibat atau hubungan persyaratan [jouken no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi-setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan sebab-akibat ini antara lain: sorede [oleh sebab itu, maka], sokode [oleh karena itu, jadi], suruto [dengan demikian, lantas], dakara/desukara [oleh karena itu, maka, karena, sehingga, jadi], shitagatte [oleh karena itu, oleh sebab itu, jadi, karena], yue ni [oleh karena itu, oleh sebab itu], soreyue [oleh sebab itu, karena itu], to [karena, sebab, bila, kalau]. Setsuzokushi jenis ini berfungsi merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dan menyatakan kata-kata atau kalimat yang disebutkan mula-mula merupakan syarat atau sebab, sedangkan kata-kata atau kalimat yang disebutkan kemudian merupakan akibat.
a. Ano mise wa maigetsu juugonichi ga kyuujitsu da. Kyou wa juugonichi da. Suruto, ano mise e itte mo dame da ne.
b. Ashita wa tenki ga waruku narisou desu ne. Dakara, ashita wa yameyou, yama e iku no wa.
c. Chottomo undou shinai. Shitagatte, karada ga yowai no da.
d. Kare wa karada ga yowai. Sorede, yoku kesseki suru.
6. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan suatu perubahan atau peralihan [tenkan no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi yang termasuk jenis ini berfungsi merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dengan menyatakan bahwa pernyataan yang disebutkan kemudian merupakan perralihan/pergantian/perubahan daripada pernyataan yang disebutkan mula-mula. Setsuzokushi-setsuzokushi yang termasuk jenis ini di antaranya: sate [kalau begitu, baik, nah, ada pun, jadi, maka, lantas], dewa [kalau begitu, maka, lalu, kemudian, jadi, baiklah], tokini [walaupun demikian, ngomong-ngomong], tokorode [oya, ngomong-ngomong, tetapi], soredewa [kalau begitu, jika demikian, jadi], tonikaku [namun demikian, walau bagaimanapun, pokoknya, pada umumnya, bagaimanapun juga].
a. Tokoro de, konogoro eiga o mimasu ka?
b. Sate, hanashi kawatte, kawa e asobi ni itta Yukari-san wa.
c. Toki ni, ano mondai wa dou narimashita ka?
7. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan penjelasan [setsumei no setsuzokushi]
Di dalam kelompok setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan penjelasan ini terdapat kata-kata: tsumari [dengan singkat, dengan kata lain, pendek kata, alhasil, ialah, yaitu, akhirnya, yakni], sunawachi [yaitu, yakni, ialah, lalu], tatoeba [misalnya, umpamanya, seandainya], nazenara [sebab, karena], yousuruni [dengan singkat, pendek kata, pokoknya, sebenarnya], dan lain-lain. Setsuzokushi kelompik ini berfungsi merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dan menyatakan pernyataan yang disebut kemudian merupakan penjelasan atau tambahan pernyataan yang disebut sebelumnya.
a. Dekakeru no wa yameta hou ga ii. Nazenara ashita wa ame ga furusou dakara.
b. Nihon wa shiki, sunawachi haru, natsu, aki, fuyu no henka ga aru.
C. Pembentukan Setsuzokushi
Kata-kata yang termasuk setsuzokushi [konjungsi] jumlahnya cukup banyak. Contohnya sebagian besar telah dikemukakan pada penjelasan bagian B. Apabila melihat bentuk setsuzokushi, maka akan kelihatan ada setsuzokushi yang merupakan bentukan dari kelas kata lain. Maksud pembentukan setsuzokushi di sini yaitu beberapa kelas kata dipakai secara berurutan dan akhirnya menjadi sebuah setsuzokushi. Misalnya kata sorekara berasal dari nomina sore [itu] ditambah partikel kara [dari, mulai], lalu kedua kata itu menjadi sebuah setsuzokushi [konjungsi] sorekara yang berarti lalu, dan, selanjutnya atau sesudah itu. Pembentukan setsuzokushi dapat terjadi dengan pola-pola seperti berikut:
1. Meishi + joshi
Tokoroga [tokoro +ga]
Sorenara [sore +nara]
Yueni [yue +ni]
Tokorode [tokoro + de]
Soredewa [sore +dewa]
Sokode [soko +de]
Soreni [sore +ni]
Sorede [sore +de]
Tokini [toki +ni]
2. Doushi + joshi
Shitagatte [shitagau + te]
Narabini [narabu + ni]
Suruto [suru +to]
3. Fukushi + joshi
Matawa [mata + wa]
4. Jodoushi + joshi
Desukeredomo [desu +keredomo]
Desukeredo [desu +keredo]
Desukedo [desu +kedo]
Dakeredomo [da + keredomo]
Dakeredo [da + keredo]
Dakedo [da +kedo]
Desukara [desu + kara]
Dakara [da +kara]
Desuga [desu + ga]
Daga [da +ga]
5. Joshi + joshi
Demo [de + mo]
Dewa [de + wa]
Shikamo [shika + mo]
6. Fukushi + doushi
Soushite [sou +shite]
Soshite [so +shite]
7. Fukushi + doushi + joshi
Sousuruto [sou +suru + to]
D. Setsuzokushi yang sama dengan kelas kata lain
Seperti telah dijelaskan pada bagian C, ada setsuzokushi yang terbentuk dari beberapa kelas kata. Beberapa kelas kata dikombinasikan dan akhirnya membentuk sebuah setsuzokushi. Selain itu, yang perlu diketahui juga, ada beberapa kata yang termasuk setsuzokushi yang dipakai juga pada keelas kata lain. Maksudnya, ada beberapa kata yang dipakai pada kelompok setsuzokushi, tetapi dipakai pula pada kelas kata lain. Kalau kita melihat jenis setsuzokushisetsuzokushi yang dipakai juga pada kelompok fukushi dan kelompok joshi.
1. Setsuzokushi yang sama dengan fukushi [adverbia]
a.
[1] Kare wa mata jigyou ni shippai shita. [fukushi]
[2] Atama mo yoi shi, mata karada mo yoi. [setsuzokushi]
b.
[1] Nao yoku sagashite mimasu. [fukushi]
[2] Kaijo wa koudou desu. Nao, kaikai wa kuji desu. [setsuzokushi]
c.
[1] Boku mo aruiwa iku kamo shirenai. [fukushi]
[2] Tozan aruiwa kaisuiyoku ni iku. [setsuzokushi]
Untuk membedakan apakah kata itu termasuk setsuzokushi atau termasuk fukushi, kita harus memperhatikan isi atau makna seluruh kalimat atau harus memperhatikan konteks kalimat itu. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk menggabungkan beberapa kalimat atau menggabungkan bagian kalimat-kalimat. Seperti setsuzokushi [konjungsi] fukushi pada kalimat a-2 dipakai untuk menggabungkan kalimat Atama mo yoi dengan kalimat Karada mo yoi sehingga menjadi kalimat Atama mo yoi shi, mata karada mo yoi. Tetapi fukushi [adverbia] mata seperti yang ada pada kalimat a-1 dipakai untuk menerangkan kata-kata yang ada pada bagian berikutnya, tidak berfungsi sebagai konjungsi/kata sambung.
2. Setsuzokushi yang sama dengan joshi [partikel]
a.
[1] Yoku taberu ga, chotto mo futoranai. [joshi]
[2] Yoku taberu. Ga, chotto mo futoranai. [setsuzokushi]
b.
[1] Ji o yomeru keredomo, kakenai. [joshi]
[2] Ji o yomeru. Keredomo, kakenai. [setsuzokushi]
Barangkali mudah sekali kita membedakan apakah kata itu sebagai setsuzokushi atau sebagai joshi. Sebagai contoh kita dapat melihat kalimat a. joshi [partikel] ga pada kalimat a-1 tidak dapat berdiri sendiri, selalu mengikuti kata yang ada sebelumnya. Kata itu baru dapat menunjukkan arti bila sudah disusun dengan kata lain. Sedangkan setsuzokushi [konjungsi] gaSetsuzokushi tidak dapat digabungkan dan disusun dengan kata lain. Setsuzokushi lain yang dipakai juga sebagai joshi yaitu: date, dewa, keredo, demo dan sebagainya. seperti yang tertulis pada Bagian B, tampak ada beberapa seperti pada contoh kalimat a-2 dapat berdiri sendiri dan dapat menunjukkan arti tanpa bantuan kata lain.
Kredit : Setzuzokushi si Kata Sambung
A. Arti dan Fungsi Setsuzokushi
Dalam Bahasa Indonesia konjungsi sering disebut juga kata sambung. Si kata sambung ini dalam Bahasa Jepang disebut dengan setsuzokushi. Nagayama Isami secara singkat menjelaskan bahwa yang dimaksud setsuzokushi ialah kelas kata yang dipakai untuk menghubungkan atau merangkaikan kalimat dengan kalimat atau merangkaikan bagian-bagian kalimat [Isami, 1986: 157]. Fungsi setsuzokushi [konjungsi] yatu:
1. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk merangkaikan, menjajarkan atau mengumpulkan beberapa kata. Setsuzokushi dipakai di antara kata-kata itu.
a. Borupen matawa manenhitsu de kakinasai!
b. Eigo narabini suugaku wo benkyou shinasai!
c. Yuka-san, Emiko-san oyobi Akemi-san ga daihyou toshite dekakemasu.
2. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk menggabungkan dua klausa atau lebih dalam suatu kalimat, menghubungkan induk kalimat dengan anak kalimat. Setsuzokushi diapit oleh bagian-bagian kalimat yang digabungkan itu.
a. Kare wa seijika de, shikamo, bungakusha data.
b. Benkyou mo suru shi, mata, undou mo suru.
c. Tasuke wo motometa ga, shikashi dare mo konakatta.
3. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk menggabungkan dua kalimat, menyatakan bahwa kalimat yang disebutkan mula-mula berhubungan dengan kalimat yang disebutkan berikutnya. Setsuzokushi diletakkan setelah titik pada kalimat pertama.
a. Kaze wa yanda. Daga, ame wa furitsuzuiteru.
b. Eiga wo mi ni ikou ka. Soretomo, ongaku wo kiki ni ikou ka?
c. Kare wa atama ga ii. Shikashi, undou ga dame desu.
Setsuzokushi tidak mengenal konjugasi atau deklinasi, termasuk kelas kata yang berdiri sendiri [jiritsugo] dan tidak mempunyai dukungan sintaksis dengan bentuk lain, tidak dapat diatur atau dihubung-hubungkan dengan kata lain dan tidak dapat membentuk kalimat tanpa sokongan kata lain. Setsuzokushi hanya berfungsi menghubungkan beberapa kata, menghubungkan dua klausa atau lebih atau menghubungkan bagian-bagian kalimat, menggabungkan kalimat dengan kalimat. Setsuzokushi tidak dapat menjadi subjek, objek, predikat atau pun adverbia.
B. Jenis-jenis Setsuzokushi
Ada beberapa pendapat mengenai setsuzokushi ini. Ada yang membaginya menjadi lima jenis dan ada juga yang membaginya menjadi tujuh jenis. Seperti Uehara Takeshi dalam buku Shinshu Kaimei Kokubunpo, Terada Takanao dalam buku Chugakusei No Kakubunpou dan Hirai Masao dalam buku Nandemo Wakaru Shinkokugo Handobukku membagi setsuzokushi menjadi 7 jenis yakni: heiritsu, sentaku, tenka, gyakusetsu, joken, tenkan dan setsumei.
Baik Nagayama Isami maupun Murakami Motojiro tampaknya mengelompokkan jenis setsuzokushi [konjungsi] jouken, tenkan dan setsumei [yang dikemukakan oleh Uehara Takeshi, Terada Takanao dan Hirai Masao] menjadi jenis junsetsu. Pada bagian ini akan dibahas semua jenis setsuzokushi yang telah dikemukakan di atas.
1. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan yang setara [heiritsu no setsuzokushi].
Setsuzokushi yang dipakai untuk menyatakan hubungan setara di antaranya: oyobi [dan, serta, lagi], narabini [dan, lagipula, serta, begitu pula], mata [dan, lagi, juga, selanjutnya].
Setsuzokushi-setsuzokushiseperti ini berfungsi untuk merangkaikan, menjajarkan atau mengumpulkan beberapa kata atau kalimat yang setara sehingga menjadi satu kesatuan kalimat yang lebih besar.
a. Ji wo kaki, mata hon wo yomu.
b. Pochi wa utsukushiku, mata kashikoi inu desu.
c. Eigo narabini suugaku o benkyou shinasai!
d. Yuka-san, Emiko-san, oyobi Akemi-san ga daihyou toshite dekakemesu.
2. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan pilihan [sentaku no setsuzokushi]
Jenis setsuzokushi ini berfungsi menyatakan pilihan di antara kata-kata yang disebutkan sebelumnya dengan kata-kata yang disebutkan kemudian. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan pilihan ini antara lain: aruiwa [atau, atau pun, boleh jadi, mungkin, barangkali, kalau tidak], soretomo [atau, kalau tidak], matawa [atau], moshikuwa [atau, atau pun] dan sebagainya.
a. Okashi ga ii ka, soretomo, kudamono ga ii ka?
b. Denwa matawa denpou de oshirase shimasu.
c. Furansu-go aruiwa doitsu-go o benkyou shitai to omotteru.
d. Tegami moshikuwa denwa de gohenji itashimasu.
3. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan tambahan [tenki no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi yang dipakai untuk menyatakan hubungan tambahan ini di antaranya kata-kata omake ni [tambahan, sebagai tambahan, selain itu, lagipula], shikamo [lagipula, dan, juga, selanjutnya tambahan], soshite/soushite [lalu, dan lagi, selanjutnya], sonoue [di samping itu, selain itu, lagipula, tambahan pula], sorekara [lalu, sesudah itu, maka, selanjutnya], sore ni [lagipula, selain itu, tambahan], nao [lagi, lagipula, selanjutnya dan lagi, demikian juga], mata [lagi, dan juga, selanjutnya tambahan, yang lain]. Setsuzokushi kelompok ini berfungsi menyatakan bahwa tindakan pertama diikuti tindakan berikutnya, benda/keadaan yang pertama diikuti benda/keadaan yang pertama diikuti benda/keadaan berikutnya. Penjelasan yang disebutkan kemudian memperkuat penjelasan yang disebutkan sebelumnya.
a. Kare wa Eigo ga dekita, shikamo nihongo mo dekiru.
b. Yama ni mo itta shi, soshite umi ni mo itta.
c. Ame mo hidokatta ga, sonoue kaze mo hidokatta.
4. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan yang berlawanan [gyakusetsu no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi yang dipakai untuk menyatakan hubungan yang berlawanan ialah: ga [[tapi, tetapi, namun], kedo/keredo/kedomo/keredomo [tapi, tetapi, akan tetapi, meskipun, walaupun], shikashi [tetapi, walaupun demikian, namun] soredemo [walaupun begitu, walaupun demikian, tetapi], tadashi [tetapi, tapi], daga/desu ga [tetapi, akan tetapi, walaupun demikian], dakedo/dakeredo/desukedo/desukeredo/desukeredomo/dakeredomo [walaupun demikian, tapi, tetapi], datte [tetapi], demo [walaupun begitu, biarpun, tetapi, akan tetapi], tokoroga [tetapi, sebaliknya, padahal, melainkan], dan sebagainya. Setsuzokushi yang termasuk kelompok ini berfungsi untuk merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dan menyatakan bahwa pernyataan yang disebutkan pertama berlawanan dengan pernyataan yang disebutkan kemudian.
a. Atama no ii gakusei da. Shikashi, kesseki ga ooi.
b. Kinou depaato e ikimashita. Tokoroga, depaato ga yasumi deshita.
c. Haru ga kita. Daga, mada kaze wa tsumetai.
5. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan sebab-akibat atau hubungan persyaratan [jouken no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi-setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan sebab-akibat ini antara lain: sorede [oleh sebab itu, maka], sokode [oleh karena itu, jadi], suruto [dengan demikian, lantas], dakara/desukara [oleh karena itu, maka, karena, sehingga, jadi], shitagatte [oleh karena itu, oleh sebab itu, jadi, karena], yue ni [oleh karena itu, oleh sebab itu], soreyue [oleh sebab itu, karena itu], to [karena, sebab, bila, kalau]. Setsuzokushi jenis ini berfungsi merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dan menyatakan kata-kata atau kalimat yang disebutkan mula-mula merupakan syarat atau sebab, sedangkan kata-kata atau kalimat yang disebutkan kemudian merupakan akibat.
a. Ano mise wa maigetsu juugonichi ga kyuujitsu da. Kyou wa juugonichi da. Suruto, ano mise e itte mo dame da ne.
b. Ashita wa tenki ga waruku narisou desu ne. Dakara, ashita wa yameyou, yama e iku no wa.
c. Chottomo undou shinai. Shitagatte, karada ga yowai no da.
d. Kare wa karada ga yowai. Sorede, yoku kesseki suru.
6. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan suatu perubahan atau peralihan [tenkan no setsuzokushi]
Setsuzokushi yang termasuk jenis ini berfungsi merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dengan menyatakan bahwa pernyataan yang disebutkan kemudian merupakan perralihan/pergantian/perubahan daripada pernyataan yang disebutkan mula-mula. Setsuzokushi-setsuzokushi yang termasuk jenis ini di antaranya: sate [kalau begitu, baik, nah, ada pun, jadi, maka, lantas], dewa [kalau begitu, maka, lalu, kemudian, jadi, baiklah], tokini [walaupun demikian, ngomong-ngomong], tokorode [oya, ngomong-ngomong, tetapi], soredewa [kalau begitu, jika demikian, jadi], tonikaku [namun demikian, walau bagaimanapun, pokoknya, pada umumnya, bagaimanapun juga].
a. Tokoro de, konogoro eiga o mimasu ka?
b. Sate, hanashi kawatte, kawa e asobi ni itta Yukari-san wa.
c. Toki ni, ano mondai wa dou narimashita ka?
7. Setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan penjelasan [setsumei no setsuzokushi]
Di dalam kelompok setsuzokushi yang menyatakan hubungan penjelasan ini terdapat kata-kata: tsumari [dengan singkat, dengan kata lain, pendek kata, alhasil, ialah, yaitu, akhirnya, yakni], sunawachi [yaitu, yakni, ialah, lalu], tatoeba [misalnya, umpamanya, seandainya], nazenara [sebab, karena], yousuruni [dengan singkat, pendek kata, pokoknya, sebenarnya], dan lain-lain. Setsuzokushi kelompik ini berfungsi merangkaikan beberapa kata atau kalimat dan menyatakan pernyataan yang disebut kemudian merupakan penjelasan atau tambahan pernyataan yang disebut sebelumnya.
a. Dekakeru no wa yameta hou ga ii. Nazenara ashita wa ame ga furusou dakara.
b. Nihon wa shiki, sunawachi haru, natsu, aki, fuyu no henka ga aru.
C. Pembentukan Setsuzokushi
Kata-kata yang termasuk setsuzokushi [konjungsi] jumlahnya cukup banyak. Contohnya sebagian besar telah dikemukakan pada penjelasan bagian B. Apabila melihat bentuk setsuzokushi, maka akan kelihatan ada setsuzokushi yang merupakan bentukan dari kelas kata lain. Maksud pembentukan setsuzokushi di sini yaitu beberapa kelas kata dipakai secara berurutan dan akhirnya menjadi sebuah setsuzokushi. Misalnya kata sorekara berasal dari nomina sore [itu] ditambah partikel kara [dari, mulai], lalu kedua kata itu menjadi sebuah setsuzokushi [konjungsi] sorekara yang berarti lalu, dan, selanjutnya atau sesudah itu. Pembentukan setsuzokushi dapat terjadi dengan pola-pola seperti berikut:
1. Meishi + joshi
Tokoroga [tokoro +ga]
Sorenara [sore +nara]
Yueni [yue +ni]
Tokorode [tokoro + de]
Soredewa [sore +dewa]
Sokode [soko +de]
Soreni [sore +ni]
Sorede [sore +de]
Tokini [toki +ni]
2. Doushi + joshi
Shitagatte [shitagau + te]
Narabini [narabu + ni]
Suruto [suru +to]
3. Fukushi + joshi
Matawa [mata + wa]
4. Jodoushi + joshi
Desukeredomo [desu +keredomo]
Desukeredo [desu +keredo]
Desukedo [desu +kedo]
Dakeredomo [da + keredomo]
Dakeredo [da + keredo]
Dakedo [da +kedo]
Desukara [desu + kara]
Dakara [da +kara]
Desuga [desu + ga]
Daga [da +ga]
5. Joshi + joshi
Demo [de + mo]
Dewa [de + wa]
Shikamo [shika + mo]
6. Fukushi + doushi
Soushite [sou +shite]
Soshite [so +shite]
7. Fukushi + doushi + joshi
Sousuruto [sou +suru + to]
D. Setsuzokushi yang sama dengan kelas kata lain
Seperti telah dijelaskan pada bagian C, ada setsuzokushi yang terbentuk dari beberapa kelas kata. Beberapa kelas kata dikombinasikan dan akhirnya membentuk sebuah setsuzokushi. Selain itu, yang perlu diketahui juga, ada beberapa kata yang termasuk setsuzokushi yang dipakai juga pada keelas kata lain. Maksudnya, ada beberapa kata yang dipakai pada kelompok setsuzokushi, tetapi dipakai pula pada kelas kata lain. Kalau kita melihat jenis setsuzokushisetsuzokushi yang dipakai juga pada kelompok fukushi dan kelompok joshi.
1. Setsuzokushi yang sama dengan fukushi [adverbia]
a.
[1] Kare wa mata jigyou ni shippai shita. [fukushi]
[2] Atama mo yoi shi, mata karada mo yoi. [setsuzokushi]
b.
[1] Nao yoku sagashite mimasu. [fukushi]
[2] Kaijo wa koudou desu. Nao, kaikai wa kuji desu. [setsuzokushi]
c.
[1] Boku mo aruiwa iku kamo shirenai. [fukushi]
[2] Tozan aruiwa kaisuiyoku ni iku. [setsuzokushi]
Untuk membedakan apakah kata itu termasuk setsuzokushi atau termasuk fukushi, kita harus memperhatikan isi atau makna seluruh kalimat atau harus memperhatikan konteks kalimat itu. Setsuzokushi dipakai untuk menggabungkan beberapa kalimat atau menggabungkan bagian kalimat-kalimat. Seperti setsuzokushi [konjungsi] fukushi pada kalimat a-2 dipakai untuk menggabungkan kalimat Atama mo yoi dengan kalimat Karada mo yoi sehingga menjadi kalimat Atama mo yoi shi, mata karada mo yoi. Tetapi fukushi [adverbia] mata seperti yang ada pada kalimat a-1 dipakai untuk menerangkan kata-kata yang ada pada bagian berikutnya, tidak berfungsi sebagai konjungsi/kata sambung.
2. Setsuzokushi yang sama dengan joshi [partikel]
a.
[1] Yoku taberu ga, chotto mo futoranai. [joshi]
[2] Yoku taberu. Ga, chotto mo futoranai. [setsuzokushi]
b.
[1] Ji o yomeru keredomo, kakenai. [joshi]
[2] Ji o yomeru. Keredomo, kakenai. [setsuzokushi]
Barangkali mudah sekali kita membedakan apakah kata itu sebagai setsuzokushi atau sebagai joshi. Sebagai contoh kita dapat melihat kalimat a. joshi [partikel] ga pada kalimat a-1 tidak dapat berdiri sendiri, selalu mengikuti kata yang ada sebelumnya. Kata itu baru dapat menunjukkan arti bila sudah disusun dengan kata lain. Sedangkan setsuzokushi [konjungsi] gaSetsuzokushi tidak dapat digabungkan dan disusun dengan kata lain. Setsuzokushi lain yang dipakai juga sebagai joshi yaitu: date, dewa, keredo, demo dan sebagainya. seperti yang tertulis pada Bagian B, tampak ada beberapa seperti pada contoh kalimat a-2 dapat berdiri sendiri dan dapat menunjukkan arti tanpa bantuan kata lain.
Kredit : Setzuzokushi si Kata Sambung
kata kerja bahasa jepang dan fungsi kata kerja
Kata Kerja Bentuk "~ masu"
Disebut demikian karena memang kata kerja ini berakhiran "masu". Kata kerja bentuk masu merupakan kata kerja bentuk sopan. Silakan simak beberapa list kata kerja bentuk masu beserta artinya:
Bentuk ~ masu Arti Bentuk ~ masu Arti
Kaerimasu
帰ります Pulang Nemasu
寝ます Tidur
Kaimasu
買います Membeli Okimasu
起きます Bangun
Kakimasu
書きます Menulis Tabemasu
食べます Makan
Nomimasu
飲みます Minum Kimasu
来ます Datang
Hatarakimasu
働きます Bekerja Shimasu
し ます Melakukan
Mimasu
見 ます Melihat Benkyoo shimasu
勉強します Belajar
Fungsi dari kata kerja masu:
A. Menunjukan Kebiasaan Yang Dilakukan
• Asa, okimasu.
朝、起きます。 Pagi-pagi bangun.
• Mainichi, hatarakimasu.
毎日、働きます。 Setiap hari bekerja.
• Maiban, benkyoo shimasu.
毎晩、勉強します。 Setiap malam belajar.
• Yoru, nemasu.
夜、寝ます。 Malam Tidur.
kata keterangan waktu seperti: asa (pagi), hiru (siang), yoru (malam), mainichi (setiap hari), maiasa (setiap pagi), maiban (setiap malam), itsumo (selalu), taitei (biasanya) dll biasanya digunakan untuk lebih menegaskan bahwa kegiatan tersebut merupakan suatu kebiasaan.
B. Menunjukan Kegiatan Yang Akan Dilakukan
• Nichiyoobi, ikimasu.
日曜日、行きます。 Hari Minggu, (akan) pergi.
• Ashita, hatarakimasu.
明日、働きます。 Besok (akan) bekerja.
Untuk membuat kalimat tanya dari kata kerja, sama caranya dengan yang lain, yaitu dengan menambahkan partikel ka di akhir kalimat.
A: Ashita, ikimasu ka.
明日、行きますか。
B: Hai, ikimasu.
はい、行きます。 A: Apakah besok pergi?
B: Iya pergi.
A: Mainichi, hatarakimasu ka.
毎日、働きますか。
B: Hai, hatarakimasu.
はい、働きます。 A: Apakah setiap hari bekerja?
B: Iya, bekerja.
Kenapa subjeknya tidak ada?? Ya, bahasa Jepang memang jarang sekali menyertakan subjek kalimat apabila konteks percakapannya sudah diketahui oleh pembicara dan lawan bicara.
Kata Kerja Bentuk "~ masen"
Bagaimana membuat kalimat negatif dari kata kerja??? Sangat mudah!!! Untuk membuat kalimat negatif kamu tinggal mengganti akhiran "masu" dengan "masen".
Lihat list perubahan dari bentuk positif ke negatif:
Positif Negatif Arti
Hatarakimasu
働きます Hatarakimasen
働きません Bekerja
Kaerimasu
帰ります Kaerimasen
帰りません Pulang
Kaimasu
買います Kaimasen
買いません Membeli
Kakimasu
書きます Kakimasen
書きません Menulis
Nomimasu
飲みます Nomimasen
飲みません Minum
Mimasu
見ます Mimasen
見 ません Melihat
Nemasu
寝ます Nemasen
寝 ません Tidur
Okimasu
起きます Okimasen
起 きません Bangun
Tabemasu
食べます Tabemasen
食 べません Makan
Kimasu
来ます Kimasen
来ません Datang
Shimasu
し ます Shimasen
しません Melakukan
Benkyoo shimasu
勉強します Benkyoo shimasen
勉強しません Belajar
Contoh Kalimat:
• Ashita, hatarakimasen.
明日、働きません。 Besok tidak kerja
• Asa, tabemasen.
朝、食べません。 Pagi-pagi tidak makan.
A: Yoru, benkyoo shimasu ka.
夜、勉強しますか。
B: Iie, benkyoo shimasen.
いいえ、勉強しません。 A: Apakah malam belajar?
B: Tidak, tidak belajar.
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar mengenai kata sifat bahasa Jepang. Kata sifat Bahasa Jepang diklasifikasikan menjadi 2 bagian, yaitu kata sifat i dan kata sifat na. Kata Sifat i adalah kata sifat yang berahiran i, sedangkan kata sifat na adalah kata sifat yang tidak berakhiran i.
A. Kata Sifat i Sebagai Predikat
Cara membuat kalimat sederhana dengan menggunakan kata sifat sangat mudah!!! Caranya sama dengan membuat kalimat dengan menggunakan kata benda sebagai predikat, yaitu “KB wa KS desu”. Untuk lebih jelas, silakan simak contoh berikut ini:
Contoh Kalimat:
• Atarashii desu.
新しいです。 Baru
• Kono kaban wa atarashii desu.
この鞄は新しいです。 Tas ini baru.
• Kono kaban wa atarashikunai desu.
この鞄は新しくないです。 Tas ini tidak baru
• Takai desu
高いです。 Mahal.
• Watashi no kuruma wa takai desu
私の車は高いです。 Mobil saya mahal.
• Watashi no kuruma wa takakunai desu
私の車は高くないです。 Mobil saya tidak mahal.
Hati-hati!!! Ada beberapa kata sifat yang berakhiran i, namun bukan termasuk kata sifat i. Kata sifat tersebut adalah: Kirei (cantik), kirai (benci) dan yuumei (terkenal).
Keterangan: Cara merubah kata sifat i ke bentuk negatif adalah dengan mengganti huruf i terakhir dengan kunai.
Perubahan Kata Sifat
Bentuk Positif Bentuk Negatif
Bagus Yoi
良い Yokunai
良くない
Baik Hati Yasashii
優しい Yasashikunai
優しくない
Baru Atarashii
新しい Atarashikunai
新しくない
Besar Ookii
大きい Ookikunai
大きくない
Dingin Samui
寒い Samukunai
寒くない
Enak Oishii
美味しい Oishikunai
美味しくない
Menarik Omoshiroi
面白い Omoshirokunai
面白くない
Panas Atsui
暑い Atsukunai
暑くない
Sibuk Isogashii
忙しい Isogashikunai
忙しくない
Sulit Muzukashii
難しい Muzukashikunai
難しくない
Tinggi / Mahal Takai
高い Takakunai
高くない
Bagaimana kalau ingin membuat kalimat pertanyaan dengan kalimat yang predikatnya kata sifat?? Mudah!! Sama seperti pelajaran sebelumnya, kamu tinggal tambahkan partikel "ka" di akhir kalimat
Contoh:
A: Kono kaban wa atarashii desu ka.
この鞄は新しいですか。
B: Hai, atarashii desu.
はい、新しいです。
Iie, atarashikunai desu.
いいえ、新しくないです。 Apakah tas ini baru?
Iya, baru.
Tidak, tidak baru.
A: Nihongo wa omoshiroi desu ka.
日本語は面白いですか。
B: Hai, omoshiroi desu.
はい、面白いです。
Iie, omoshirokunai desu.
いいえ、面白くないです。 Apakah bahasa Jepang menarik?
Iya, menarik.
Tidak, tidak menarik.
Kata Sifat i Sebagai Keterangan Kata Benda
Kalau pada materi sebelumnya kita belajar mengenai kata sifat yang berfungsi sebagai predikat, maka pada kesempatan kali ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat dengan menggunakan kata sifat sebagai keterangan kata benda. Untuk lebih jelas, silakan simak contoh berikut ini:
Contoh Kalimat:
• Atarashii desu.
新しいです。 Baru
• Atarashii kaban desu.
新しい鞄です。 Tas yang baru.
• Kore wa atarashii kaban desu.
これは新しい鞄です。 Ini tas yang baru.
• Kore wa atarashikunai kaban desu
これは新しくない鞄です。 Ini bukan tas yang baru
• Takai desu
高いです。 Mahal.
• Takai kuruma desu
高くない車です。 Mobil yang mahal.
• Kore wa takai kuruma desu.
これは高い車です。 Ini mobil yang mahal.
• Kore wa takakunai kuruma desu.
これは高くない車です。 Ini bukan mobil yang mahal
Contoh Kata Sifat i Pemberi Keterangan Kata Benda
Kaban (tas)
鞄 Yoi (bagus)
良い Yoi kaban
(tas yang bagus)
Hito (orang)
人 Yasashii (baik hati)
優 しい Yasashii hito
(orang yang baik hati)
Hon (buku)
本 Atarashii (baru)
新 しい Atarashii hon
(buku yang baru)
Uchi (rumah)
家 Ookii (besar)
お おきい Okii uchi
(rumah yang besar)
Tokoro (tempat)
所 Samui (dingin)
寒 い Samui tokoro
(tempat yang dingin)
Ryoori (makanan)
料理 Oishii (enak)
美 味しい Oishii ryoori
(makanan yang enak)
Eiga (film)
映画 Omoshiroi (menarik)
面 白い Omoshiroi eiga
(film yang menarik)
Shukudai (PR)
宿題 Muzukashii (sulit)
難 しい Muzukashii shukudai
(PR yang sulit)
Kata Kerja ~ mashita
Kalau pada materi sebelumnya kita membahas mengenai kata kerja bentuk sekarang dan akan datang, maka pada materi kali ini kita akan membahas mengenai kata kerja bentuk lampau. Bentuk lampau kata kerja dinyatakan dengan akhiran "mashita". Mari kita simak perubahan kata kerja berikut ini:
Bentuk Sekarang Bentuk Lampau Arti
Hatarakimasu
働きます Hatarakimashita
働きました Bekerja
Kaerimasu
帰ります Kaerimashita
帰りました Pulang
Kaimasu
買います Kaimashita
買いました Membeli
Kakimasu
書きます Kakimashita
書きました Menulis
Nomimasu
飲みます Nomimashita
飲みません Minum
Mimasu
見ます Mimashita
見 ました Melihat
Nemasu
寝ます Nemashita
寝 ました Tidur
Okimasu
起きます Okimashita
起 きました Bangun
Tabemasu
食べます Tabemashita
食 べました Makan
Kimasu
来ます Kimashita
来ました Datang
Shimasu
し ます Shimashita
しました Melakukan
Benkyoo shimasu
勉強します Benkyoo shimashita
勉強しました Belajar
Contoh Kalimat:
• Kyoo, hatarakimasu.
今日、働きます。 Hari ini bekerja.
→ Kinoo, hatarakimashita.
昨日、働きました。 Kemarin bekerja.
• Ashita, ikimasu.
明日、行きます。 Besok, pergi.
→ Kinoo, ikimashita.
昨日、行きました。 Kemarin, pergi.
• Maiban, benkyoo shimasu.
毎晩、勉強します。 Setiap malam belajar.
→ Yuube, benkyoo shimashita.
夕べ、勉強しました。 Semalam, belajar.
Yang perlu kalian perhatikan adalah kata keterangan waktunya, apakah lampau atau tidak. Berikut ini beberapa kata kerangan waktu yang biasanya digunakan untuk menyatakan kegiatan lampau:
Kinoo 昨日(Kemarin), Kesa 今朝(tadi pagi), Yuube 夕べ(tadi malam), Senshuu 先週(minggu lalu), Sengetsu 先月(bulan lalu), Kyonen 去年(tahun lalu), dll.
Kata Kerja ~ masen deshita
Untuk membuat kalimat negatif lampau, kamu tinggal mengganti "~ mashita" dengan "~ masen deshita".
Bentuk Lampau Positif Bentuk Lampau Negatif Arti
Hatarakimasu
働 きした Hatarakimasen deshita
働 きませんでした Bekerja
Kaerimashita
帰 りました Kaerimasen deshita
帰 りませんでした Pulang
Kaimashita
買 いました Kaimasen deshita
買 いませんでした Membeli
Kakimashita
書 きました Kakimasen deshita
書 きませんでした Menulis
Nomimashita
飲 みました Nomimasen deshita
飲 みませんでした Minum
Mimashita
見ました Mimasen deshita
見 ませんでした Melihat
Nemashita
寝ました Nemasen deshita
寝 ませんでした Tidur
Okimashita
起きました Okimasen deshita
起 きませんでした Bangun
Tabemashita
食べました Tabemasen deshita
食 べませんでした Makan
Kimashita
来ました Kimasen deshita
来ませんでした Datang
Shimashita
し ました Shimasen deshita
しませんでした Melakukan
Benkyoo shimashita
勉強しました Benkyoo shimasen deshita
勉強しませんでした Belajar
Contoh Kalimat:
• Kinoo, hatarakimashita.
昨日、働きました。 Kemarin bekerja.
→ Kinoo, hatarakimasen deshita.
昨日、働きませんでした。 Kemarin tidak bekerja.
• Kinoo, ikimashita.
昨日、行きました。 Kemarin, pergi.
→ Kinoo, ikimasen deshita.
昨日、行きませんでした。 Kemarin tidak pergi.
A: Yuube, benkyoo shimashita ka?
夕べ、勉強しましたか。
B: Iie, benkyoo shimasen deshita.
いいえ、勉強しませんでした。 A: Apakah semalam, belajar.
B: Tidak, tidak belajar.
Apa itu bentuk Stem? Bantuk stem adalah akar kata dari kata kerja. Untuk mengetahui akar dari kata kerja sungguh mudah!!! Anda hanya tinggal menghilangkan kata "masu" pada kata kerja tersebut.
Perhatikan perubahan berikut ini!!!
Kata Kerja 1
Aimasu
会 います Ai Bertemu
Machimasu
待 ちます Machi Menunggu
Kaerimasu
帰 ります Kaeri Pulang
Yomimasu
読 みます Yomi Membaca
Yobimasu
呼 びます Yobi Memanggil
Ikimasu
行 きます Iki Pergi
Oyogimasu
泳 ぎます Oyogi Berenang
Kata Kerja 2
Mimasu
見 ます Mi Nonton
Nemasu
寝 ます Ne Tidur
Oshiemasu
教 えます Oshie Mengajar
Tabemasu
食 べます Tabe Makan
Kata Kerja 3
Kimasu
来 ます Ki Datang
Shimasu
し ます Shi Melakukan
Kegunaan Bentuk Stem:
• Kalimat ajakan (KK stem + mashoo)
• Kalimat ajakan 2 (KK stem + masen ka)
• Menyatakan Keinginan Melakukan Sesuatu (KK stem + tai)
• Menawarkan Bantuan (KK stem + mashoo ka)
• Sambil ~, melakukan ~ (KK stem + nagara)
• Bentuk Perintah (KK stem + nasai)
Ajakan ~ mashoo (~ yuk)
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat ajakan dalam bahasa Jepang. Ada 2 cara bagaimana membuat kalimat ajakan, yaitu:
• K.kerja (stem) + mashoo (~ yuk)
• K.kerja (stem) + masen ka (bagaimana kalau ~)
Perbedaan antara ke-2 bentuk tersebut terletak pada formalitas bahasa. Ajakan dengan menggunakan bentuk ~ masen ka dianggap lebih sopan dari bentuk ~ mashoo.
Oke, sekarang mari kita perhatikan bagaimana cara membuat bentuk ajakan dengan bentuk ~ mashoo.
Kata Kerja 1
Aimasu
会 います Bertemu Aimashoo
会 いましょう Ketemuan yuk
Hatarakimasu
働 きます Berkerja Hatarakimashoo
働 きましょう Bekerja yuk
Ikimasu
行 きます Pergi Ikimashoo
行 きましょう Pergi yuk
Kaerimasu
帰 ります Pulang Kaerimashoo
帰 りましょう Pulang yuk
Machimasu
待ちます Menunggu Machimashoo
待ちましょう Tunggu yuk
Oyogimasu
泳 ぎます Berenang Oyogimashoo
泳 ぎましょう Berenang yuk
Kata Kerja 2
Mimasu
見 ます Nonton Mimashoo
見 ましょう Nonton yuk
Nemasu
寝 ます Tidur Nemashoo
寝 ましょう Tidur yuk
Tabemasu
食 べます Makan Tabemashoo
食 べましょう Makan yuk
Kata Kerja 3
Kimasu
来 ます Datang Kimashoo
来 ましょう Datang yuk
Shimasu
し ます Melakukan Shimashoo
し ましょう Kerjakan yuk
Benkyoo shimasu
勉 強します Belajar Benkyoo shimashoo
勉 強しましょう Belajar yuk
Contoh Kalimat:
• Moo sukoshi machimashoo.
もう少し待ちましょう。 Tunggu sebentar lagi yuk
• Issho ni ikimashoo.
一緒に行きましょう。 Pergi bareng yuk
• Aruite kaerimashoo.
歩いて帰りましょう。 Pulang jalan kaki yuk
Kosakata:
♦ Moo sukoshi （もう少し）: Sebentar lagi
♦ Issho ni （一緒に）: Bersama-sama
♦ Aruite （歩いて）: Berjalan kaki
Disebut demikian karena memang kata kerja ini berakhiran "masu". Kata kerja bentuk masu merupakan kata kerja bentuk sopan. Silakan simak beberapa list kata kerja bentuk masu beserta artinya:
Bentuk ~ masu Arti Bentuk ~ masu Arti
Kaerimasu
帰ります Pulang Nemasu
寝ます Tidur
Kaimasu
買います Membeli Okimasu
起きます Bangun
Kakimasu
書きます Menulis Tabemasu
食べます Makan
Nomimasu
飲みます Minum Kimasu
来ます Datang
Hatarakimasu
働きます Bekerja Shimasu
し ます Melakukan
Mimasu
見 ます Melihat Benkyoo shimasu
勉強します Belajar
Fungsi dari kata kerja masu:
A. Menunjukan Kebiasaan Yang Dilakukan
• Asa, okimasu.
朝、起きます。 Pagi-pagi bangun.
• Mainichi, hatarakimasu.
毎日、働きます。 Setiap hari bekerja.
• Maiban, benkyoo shimasu.
毎晩、勉強します。 Setiap malam belajar.
• Yoru, nemasu.
夜、寝ます。 Malam Tidur.
kata keterangan waktu seperti: asa (pagi), hiru (siang), yoru (malam), mainichi (setiap hari), maiasa (setiap pagi), maiban (setiap malam), itsumo (selalu), taitei (biasanya) dll biasanya digunakan untuk lebih menegaskan bahwa kegiatan tersebut merupakan suatu kebiasaan.
B. Menunjukan Kegiatan Yang Akan Dilakukan
• Nichiyoobi, ikimasu.
日曜日、行きます。 Hari Minggu, (akan) pergi.
• Ashita, hatarakimasu.
明日、働きます。 Besok (akan) bekerja.
Untuk membuat kalimat tanya dari kata kerja, sama caranya dengan yang lain, yaitu dengan menambahkan partikel ka di akhir kalimat.
A: Ashita, ikimasu ka.
明日、行きますか。
B: Hai, ikimasu.
はい、行きます。 A: Apakah besok pergi?
B: Iya pergi.
A: Mainichi, hatarakimasu ka.
毎日、働きますか。
B: Hai, hatarakimasu.
はい、働きます。 A: Apakah setiap hari bekerja?
B: Iya, bekerja.
Kenapa subjeknya tidak ada?? Ya, bahasa Jepang memang jarang sekali menyertakan subjek kalimat apabila konteks percakapannya sudah diketahui oleh pembicara dan lawan bicara.
Kata Kerja Bentuk "~ masen"
Bagaimana membuat kalimat negatif dari kata kerja??? Sangat mudah!!! Untuk membuat kalimat negatif kamu tinggal mengganti akhiran "masu" dengan "masen".
Lihat list perubahan dari bentuk positif ke negatif:
Positif Negatif Arti
Hatarakimasu
働きます Hatarakimasen
働きません Bekerja
Kaerimasu
帰ります Kaerimasen
帰りません Pulang
Kaimasu
買います Kaimasen
買いません Membeli
Kakimasu
書きます Kakimasen
書きません Menulis
Nomimasu
飲みます Nomimasen
飲みません Minum
Mimasu
見ます Mimasen
見 ません Melihat
Nemasu
寝ます Nemasen
寝 ません Tidur
Okimasu
起きます Okimasen
起 きません Bangun
Tabemasu
食べます Tabemasen
食 べません Makan
Kimasu
来ます Kimasen
来ません Datang
Shimasu
し ます Shimasen
しません Melakukan
Benkyoo shimasu
勉強します Benkyoo shimasen
勉強しません Belajar
Contoh Kalimat:
• Ashita, hatarakimasen.
明日、働きません。 Besok tidak kerja
• Asa, tabemasen.
朝、食べません。 Pagi-pagi tidak makan.
A: Yoru, benkyoo shimasu ka.
夜、勉強しますか。
B: Iie, benkyoo shimasen.
いいえ、勉強しません。 A: Apakah malam belajar?
B: Tidak, tidak belajar.
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar mengenai kata sifat bahasa Jepang. Kata sifat Bahasa Jepang diklasifikasikan menjadi 2 bagian, yaitu kata sifat i dan kata sifat na. Kata Sifat i adalah kata sifat yang berahiran i, sedangkan kata sifat na adalah kata sifat yang tidak berakhiran i.
A. Kata Sifat i Sebagai Predikat
Cara membuat kalimat sederhana dengan menggunakan kata sifat sangat mudah!!! Caranya sama dengan membuat kalimat dengan menggunakan kata benda sebagai predikat, yaitu “KB wa KS desu”. Untuk lebih jelas, silakan simak contoh berikut ini:
Contoh Kalimat:
• Atarashii desu.
新しいです。 Baru
• Kono kaban wa atarashii desu.
この鞄は新しいです。 Tas ini baru.
• Kono kaban wa atarashikunai desu.
この鞄は新しくないです。 Tas ini tidak baru
• Takai desu
高いです。 Mahal.
• Watashi no kuruma wa takai desu
私の車は高いです。 Mobil saya mahal.
• Watashi no kuruma wa takakunai desu
私の車は高くないです。 Mobil saya tidak mahal.
Hati-hati!!! Ada beberapa kata sifat yang berakhiran i, namun bukan termasuk kata sifat i. Kata sifat tersebut adalah: Kirei (cantik), kirai (benci) dan yuumei (terkenal).
Keterangan: Cara merubah kata sifat i ke bentuk negatif adalah dengan mengganti huruf i terakhir dengan kunai.
Perubahan Kata Sifat
Bentuk Positif Bentuk Negatif
Bagus Yoi
良い Yokunai
良くない
Baik Hati Yasashii
優しい Yasashikunai
優しくない
Baru Atarashii
新しい Atarashikunai
新しくない
Besar Ookii
大きい Ookikunai
大きくない
Dingin Samui
寒い Samukunai
寒くない
Enak Oishii
美味しい Oishikunai
美味しくない
Menarik Omoshiroi
面白い Omoshirokunai
面白くない
Panas Atsui
暑い Atsukunai
暑くない
Sibuk Isogashii
忙しい Isogashikunai
忙しくない
Sulit Muzukashii
難しい Muzukashikunai
難しくない
Tinggi / Mahal Takai
高い Takakunai
高くない
Bagaimana kalau ingin membuat kalimat pertanyaan dengan kalimat yang predikatnya kata sifat?? Mudah!! Sama seperti pelajaran sebelumnya, kamu tinggal tambahkan partikel "ka" di akhir kalimat
Contoh:
A: Kono kaban wa atarashii desu ka.
この鞄は新しいですか。
B: Hai, atarashii desu.
はい、新しいです。
Iie, atarashikunai desu.
いいえ、新しくないです。 Apakah tas ini baru?
Iya, baru.
Tidak, tidak baru.
A: Nihongo wa omoshiroi desu ka.
日本語は面白いですか。
B: Hai, omoshiroi desu.
はい、面白いです。
Iie, omoshirokunai desu.
いいえ、面白くないです。 Apakah bahasa Jepang menarik?
Iya, menarik.
Tidak, tidak menarik.
Kata Sifat i Sebagai Keterangan Kata Benda
Kalau pada materi sebelumnya kita belajar mengenai kata sifat yang berfungsi sebagai predikat, maka pada kesempatan kali ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat dengan menggunakan kata sifat sebagai keterangan kata benda. Untuk lebih jelas, silakan simak contoh berikut ini:
Contoh Kalimat:
• Atarashii desu.
新しいです。 Baru
• Atarashii kaban desu.
新しい鞄です。 Tas yang baru.
• Kore wa atarashii kaban desu.
これは新しい鞄です。 Ini tas yang baru.
• Kore wa atarashikunai kaban desu
これは新しくない鞄です。 Ini bukan tas yang baru
• Takai desu
高いです。 Mahal.
• Takai kuruma desu
高くない車です。 Mobil yang mahal.
• Kore wa takai kuruma desu.
これは高い車です。 Ini mobil yang mahal.
• Kore wa takakunai kuruma desu.
これは高くない車です。 Ini bukan mobil yang mahal
Contoh Kata Sifat i Pemberi Keterangan Kata Benda
Kaban (tas)
鞄 Yoi (bagus)
良い Yoi kaban
(tas yang bagus)
Hito (orang)
人 Yasashii (baik hati)
優 しい Yasashii hito
(orang yang baik hati)
Hon (buku)
本 Atarashii (baru)
新 しい Atarashii hon
(buku yang baru)
Uchi (rumah)
家 Ookii (besar)
お おきい Okii uchi
(rumah yang besar)
Tokoro (tempat)
所 Samui (dingin)
寒 い Samui tokoro
(tempat yang dingin)
Ryoori (makanan)
料理 Oishii (enak)
美 味しい Oishii ryoori
(makanan yang enak)
Eiga (film)
映画 Omoshiroi (menarik)
面 白い Omoshiroi eiga
(film yang menarik)
Shukudai (PR)
宿題 Muzukashii (sulit)
難 しい Muzukashii shukudai
(PR yang sulit)
Kata Kerja ~ mashita
Kalau pada materi sebelumnya kita membahas mengenai kata kerja bentuk sekarang dan akan datang, maka pada materi kali ini kita akan membahas mengenai kata kerja bentuk lampau. Bentuk lampau kata kerja dinyatakan dengan akhiran "mashita". Mari kita simak perubahan kata kerja berikut ini:
Bentuk Sekarang Bentuk Lampau Arti
Hatarakimasu
働きます Hatarakimashita
働きました Bekerja
Kaerimasu
帰ります Kaerimashita
帰りました Pulang
Kaimasu
買います Kaimashita
買いました Membeli
Kakimasu
書きます Kakimashita
書きました Menulis
Nomimasu
飲みます Nomimashita
飲みません Minum
Mimasu
見ます Mimashita
見 ました Melihat
Nemasu
寝ます Nemashita
寝 ました Tidur
Okimasu
起きます Okimashita
起 きました Bangun
Tabemasu
食べます Tabemashita
食 べました Makan
Kimasu
来ます Kimashita
来ました Datang
Shimasu
し ます Shimashita
しました Melakukan
Benkyoo shimasu
勉強します Benkyoo shimashita
勉強しました Belajar
Contoh Kalimat:
• Kyoo, hatarakimasu.
今日、働きます。 Hari ini bekerja.
→ Kinoo, hatarakimashita.
昨日、働きました。 Kemarin bekerja.
• Ashita, ikimasu.
明日、行きます。 Besok, pergi.
→ Kinoo, ikimashita.
昨日、行きました。 Kemarin, pergi.
• Maiban, benkyoo shimasu.
毎晩、勉強します。 Setiap malam belajar.
→ Yuube, benkyoo shimashita.
夕べ、勉強しました。 Semalam, belajar.
Yang perlu kalian perhatikan adalah kata keterangan waktunya, apakah lampau atau tidak. Berikut ini beberapa kata kerangan waktu yang biasanya digunakan untuk menyatakan kegiatan lampau:
Kinoo 昨日(Kemarin), Kesa 今朝(tadi pagi), Yuube 夕べ(tadi malam), Senshuu 先週(minggu lalu), Sengetsu 先月(bulan lalu), Kyonen 去年(tahun lalu), dll.
Kata Kerja ~ masen deshita
Untuk membuat kalimat negatif lampau, kamu tinggal mengganti "~ mashita" dengan "~ masen deshita".
Bentuk Lampau Positif Bentuk Lampau Negatif Arti
Hatarakimasu
働 きした Hatarakimasen deshita
働 きませんでした Bekerja
Kaerimashita
帰 りました Kaerimasen deshita
帰 りませんでした Pulang
Kaimashita
買 いました Kaimasen deshita
買 いませんでした Membeli
Kakimashita
書 きました Kakimasen deshita
書 きませんでした Menulis
Nomimashita
飲 みました Nomimasen deshita
飲 みませんでした Minum
Mimashita
見ました Mimasen deshita
見 ませんでした Melihat
Nemashita
寝ました Nemasen deshita
寝 ませんでした Tidur
Okimashita
起きました Okimasen deshita
起 きませんでした Bangun
Tabemashita
食べました Tabemasen deshita
食 べませんでした Makan
Kimashita
来ました Kimasen deshita
来ませんでした Datang
Shimashita
し ました Shimasen deshita
しませんでした Melakukan
Benkyoo shimashita
勉強しました Benkyoo shimasen deshita
勉強しませんでした Belajar
Contoh Kalimat:
• Kinoo, hatarakimashita.
昨日、働きました。 Kemarin bekerja.
→ Kinoo, hatarakimasen deshita.
昨日、働きませんでした。 Kemarin tidak bekerja.
• Kinoo, ikimashita.
昨日、行きました。 Kemarin, pergi.
→ Kinoo, ikimasen deshita.
昨日、行きませんでした。 Kemarin tidak pergi.
A: Yuube, benkyoo shimashita ka?
夕べ、勉強しましたか。
B: Iie, benkyoo shimasen deshita.
いいえ、勉強しませんでした。 A: Apakah semalam, belajar.
B: Tidak, tidak belajar.
Apa itu bentuk Stem? Bantuk stem adalah akar kata dari kata kerja. Untuk mengetahui akar dari kata kerja sungguh mudah!!! Anda hanya tinggal menghilangkan kata "masu" pada kata kerja tersebut.
Perhatikan perubahan berikut ini!!!
Kata Kerja 1
Aimasu
会 います Ai Bertemu
Machimasu
待 ちます Machi Menunggu
Kaerimasu
帰 ります Kaeri Pulang
Yomimasu
読 みます Yomi Membaca
Yobimasu
呼 びます Yobi Memanggil
Ikimasu
行 きます Iki Pergi
Oyogimasu
泳 ぎます Oyogi Berenang
Kata Kerja 2
Mimasu
見 ます Mi Nonton
Nemasu
寝 ます Ne Tidur
Oshiemasu
教 えます Oshie Mengajar
Tabemasu
食 べます Tabe Makan
Kata Kerja 3
Kimasu
来 ます Ki Datang
Shimasu
し ます Shi Melakukan
Kegunaan Bentuk Stem:
• Kalimat ajakan (KK stem + mashoo)
• Kalimat ajakan 2 (KK stem + masen ka)
• Menyatakan Keinginan Melakukan Sesuatu (KK stem + tai)
• Menawarkan Bantuan (KK stem + mashoo ka)
• Sambil ~, melakukan ~ (KK stem + nagara)
• Bentuk Perintah (KK stem + nasai)
Ajakan ~ mashoo (~ yuk)
Pada bagian ini kita akan belajar bagaimana membuat kalimat ajakan dalam bahasa Jepang. Ada 2 cara bagaimana membuat kalimat ajakan, yaitu:
• K.kerja (stem) + mashoo (~ yuk)
• K.kerja (stem) + masen ka (bagaimana kalau ~)
Perbedaan antara ke-2 bentuk tersebut terletak pada formalitas bahasa. Ajakan dengan menggunakan bentuk ~ masen ka dianggap lebih sopan dari bentuk ~ mashoo.
Oke, sekarang mari kita perhatikan bagaimana cara membuat bentuk ajakan dengan bentuk ~ mashoo.
Kata Kerja 1
Aimasu
会 います Bertemu Aimashoo
会 いましょう Ketemuan yuk
Hatarakimasu
働 きます Berkerja Hatarakimashoo
働 きましょう Bekerja yuk
Ikimasu
行 きます Pergi Ikimashoo
行 きましょう Pergi yuk
Kaerimasu
帰 ります Pulang Kaerimashoo
帰 りましょう Pulang yuk
Machimasu
待ちます Menunggu Machimashoo
待ちましょう Tunggu yuk
Oyogimasu
泳 ぎます Berenang Oyogimashoo
泳 ぎましょう Berenang yuk
Kata Kerja 2
Mimasu
見 ます Nonton Mimashoo
見 ましょう Nonton yuk
Nemasu
寝 ます Tidur Nemashoo
寝 ましょう Tidur yuk
Tabemasu
食 べます Makan Tabemashoo
食 べましょう Makan yuk
Kata Kerja 3
Kimasu
来 ます Datang Kimashoo
来 ましょう Datang yuk
Shimasu
し ます Melakukan Shimashoo
し ましょう Kerjakan yuk
Benkyoo shimasu
勉 強します Belajar Benkyoo shimashoo
勉 強しましょう Belajar yuk
Contoh Kalimat:
• Moo sukoshi machimashoo.
もう少し待ちましょう。 Tunggu sebentar lagi yuk
• Issho ni ikimashoo.
一緒に行きましょう。 Pergi bareng yuk
• Aruite kaerimashoo.
歩いて帰りましょう。 Pulang jalan kaki yuk
Kosakata:
♦ Moo sukoshi （もう少し）: Sebentar lagi
♦ Issho ni （一緒に）: Bersama-sama
♦ Aruite （歩いて）: Berjalan kaki
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